Action_NN1 and_CC Inaction_NN1 in_II the_AT Cities_NN2 Susanne_NP1 MacGregor_NP1 and_CC Ben_NP1 Pimlott_NP1 The_AT essays_NN2 in_II this_DD1 book_NN1 do_VD0 not_XX amount_NN1 to_II a_AT1 programme_NN1 :_: but_CCB they_PPHS2 are_VBR intended_VVN to_TO provide_VVI a_AT1 springboard_NN1 for_IF one_PN1 ._. 
The_AT aim_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO analyse_VVI a_AT1 problem_NN1 which_DDQ economic_JJ growth_NN1 alone_RR has_VHZ failed_VVN to_TO cure_VVI and_CC to_TO consider_VVI possible_JJ new_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO public_JJ action_NN1 ._. 
The_AT biggest_JJT single_JJ difficulty_NN1 in_II drawing_VVG attention_NN1 to_II urban_JJ poverty_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX new_JJ ,_, but_CCB simply_RR in_II some_DD of_IO its_APPGE most_RGT worrying_JJ manifestations_NN2 getting_VVG worse_JJR ._. 
Like_II the_AT poor_JJ themselves_PPX2 ,_, the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 has_VHZ long_RR been_VBN with_IW us_PPIO2 ._. 
Ever_RR since_CS the_AT Industrial_JJ Revolution_NN1 created_VVD a_AT1 mass_JJ urban_JJ society_NN1 ,_, the_AT conditions_NN2 of_IO the_AT poorest_JJT city_NN1 dwellers_NN2 have_VH0 given_VVN rise_NN1 to_II anxiety_NN1 among_II the_AT better_RRR off_RP ._. 
The_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN variously_RR regarded_VVN as_II a_AT1 cause_NN1 for_IF moral_JJ outrage_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 threat_NN1 to_II public_JJ order_NN1 ,_, or_CC as_II a_AT1 stain_NN1 on_II the_AT nation_NN1 's_GE conscience_NN1 ._. 
Meanwhile_RR bad_JJ housing_NN1 ,_, bad_JJ sanitation_NN1 ,_, lack_NN1 of_IO education_NN1 ,_, and_CC other_JJ perennial_JJ ills_NN2 associated_VVN with_IW overcrowding_VVG and_CC poverty_NN1 have_VH0 been_VBN routinely_RR denounced_VVN by_II political_JJ leaders_NN2 and_CC social_JJ reformers_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 central_JJ objective_NN1 of_IO the_AT post-war_JJ welfare_NN1 state_NN1 was_VBDZ ,_, indeed_RR ,_, to_TO alleviate_VVI the_AT problems_NN2 of_IO the_AT urban_JJ poor_JJ ,_, over_II whom_PNQO Beveridge_NP1 's_GE Five_MC Giants_NN2 (_( Want_VV0 ,_, Disease_NN1 ,_, Ignorance_NN1 ,_, Squalor_NN1 ,_, and_CC Idleness_NN1 )_) had_VHD for_IF so_RG long_RR held_VVN sway_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT early_JJ 1940s_MC2 and_CC 1950s_MC2 ,_, the_AT belief_NN1 was_VBDZ widely_RR held_VVN that_CST a_AT1 combination_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 intervention_NN1 in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO town_NN1 planning_NN1 ,_, housing_VVG and_CC health_NN1 programmes_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT provision_NN1 of_IO social_JJ security_NN1 and_CC permanent_JJ male_JJ full_JJ employment_NN1 ,_, together_RL with_IW an_AT1 increase_NN1 in_II real_JJ wages_NN2 ,_, would_VM reduce_VVI suffering_VVG due_II21 to_II22 poverty_NN1 to_II manageable_JJ proportions_NN2 ._. 
The_AT 1964_MC Labour_JJ Government_NN1 was_VBDZ elected_VVN on_II a_AT1 tide_NN1 of_IO impatience_NN1 at_II the_AT slackening_JJ pace_NN1 of_IO social_JJ reform_NN1 ,_, but_CCB also_RR of_IO optimism_NN1 that_CST little_DA1 more_DAR than_CSN economic_JJ growth_NN1 ,_, fuelled_VVN by_II technological_JJ change_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ needed_VVN to_TO remove_VVI the_AT main_JJ causes_NN2 of_IO urban_JJ deprivation_NN1 (_( MacGregor_NP1 ,_, 1981_MC )_) ._. 
Disillusion_VV0 swiftly_RR followed_VVN ._. 
The_AT work_NN1 of_IO Peter_NP1 Townsend_NP1 and_CC others_NN2 showed_VVD that_CST ,_, far_RR from_II presiding_VVG over_II the_AT elimination_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 ,_, the_AT Wilson_NP1 Government_NN1 actually_RR failed_VVN to_TO prevent_VVI some_DD of_IO its_APPGE features_NN2 from_II worsening_JJ (_( Townsend_NP1 and_CC Bosanquet_NP1 ,_, 1972_MC )_) ._. 
Evidence_NN1 began_VVD to_TO mount_VVI that_RG much_DA1 of_IO the_AT social_JJ welfare_NN1 paternalism_NN1 of_IO the_AT post-war_JJ period_NN1 had_VHD created_VVN almost_RR as_RG many_DA2 problems_NN2 as_CSA it_PPH1 solved_VVD ._. 
Neither_RR the_AT Butler_NP1 Education_NN1 Act_NN1 of_IO 1944_MC ,_, nor_CC the_AT introduction_NN1 of_IO comprehensive_JJ schools_NN2 ,_, prevented_VVD a_AT1 high_JJ proportion_NN1 of_IO children_NN2 from_II under-achieving_VVG ._. 
Post-war_JJ reconstruction_NN1 and_CC housing_VVG programmes_NN2 seemed_VVD to_TO do_VDI nothing_PN1 to_TO prevent_VVI ,_, and_CC seemed_VVD even_RR to_TO encourage_VVI ,_, a_AT1 rise_NN1 in_II crime_NN1 and_CC mental_JJ illness_NN1 ._. 
Meanwhile_RR ,_, in_II many_DA2 parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 problem_NN1 as_RG old_JJ as_CSA cities_NN2 themselves_PPX2 tension_NN1 between_II cultural_JJ groups_NN2 ,_, between_II earlier_JJR immigrants_NN2 and_CC newer_JJR ones_NN2 ,_, between_II black_JJ ,_, brown_JJ ,_, and_CC white_JJ ,_, and_CC (_( increasingly_RR )_) between_II large_JJ sections_NN2 of_IO urban_JJ youth_NN1 and_CC the_AT police_NN2 came_VVD to_TO be_VBI identified_VVN as_II the_AT key_JJ inner-city_JJ issue_NN1 ._. 
Rising_VVG unemployment_NN1 turned_VVD a_AT1 lingering_JJ and_CC growing_JJ malaise_NN1 into_II a_AT1 crisis_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, so_RR in_II Britain_NP1 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ an_AT1 outbreak_NN1 of_IO violence_NN1 that_CST dramatically_RR brought_VVD the_AT plight_NN1 of_IO the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 to_II public_JJ notice_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT early_JJ 1980s_MC2 ,_, at_II a_AT1 time_NNT1 when_RRQ manufacturing_NN1 industry_NN1 was_VBDZ collapsing_VVG and_CC the_AT outlook_NN1 for_IF the_AT unskilled_JJ looked_VVD particularly_RR bleak_JJ ,_, frustration_NN1 boiled_VVN over_RP in_II a_AT1 series_NN of_IO riots_NN2 in_II London_NP1 ,_, Bristol_NP1 ,_, Birmingham_NP1 ,_, Liverpool_NP1 ,_, and_CC elsewhere_RL ._. 
All_DB were_VBDR spontaneous_JJ outbursts_NN2 :_: none_PN ,_, contrary_II21 to_II22 some_DD claims_NN2 ,_, were_VBDR politically_RR inspired_VVN or_CC orchestrated_VVN (_( except_CS in_II Northern_NP1 Ireland_NP1 where_CS urban_JJ problems_NN2 existed_VVD on_II a_AT1 grander_JJR ,_, more_RGR devastating_JJ scale_NN1 ,_, and_CC where_CS there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 unique_JJ heritage_NN1 )_) ._. 
Many_DA2 had_VHD an_AT1 '_GE ethnic_JJ '_GE dimension_NN1 ,_, in_II the_AT sense_NN1 that_CST many_DA2 of_IO the_AT rioters_NN2 were_VBDR black_JJ ._. 
Unlike_JJ ,_, however_RR ,_, the_AT 1958_MC Notting_NP1 Hill_NP1 riots_NN2 ,_, few_DA2 of_IO those_DD2 involved_VVN were_VBDR immigrants_NN2 the_AT vast_JJ majority_NN1 were_VBDR British_JJ born_JJ ._. 
And_CC the_AT disturbances_NN2 could_VM not_XX strictly_RR be_VBI called_VVN racial_JJ :_: the_AT most_RGT prominent_JJ feature_NN1 was_VBDZ that_DD1 of_IO violent_JJ clashes_NN2 between_II young_JJ people_NN and_CC the_AT police_NN2 ._. 
The_AT problems_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, were_VBDR not_XX confined_VVN to_II violent_JJ upheavals_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 kind_NN1 ._. 
Paul_NP1 Harrison_NP1 's_VBZ Inside_II the_AT Inner_JJ City_NN1 :_: Life_NN1 under_II the_AT Cutting_NN1 Edge_NN1 focused_VVN on_II Hackney_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 London_NP1 borough_NN1 ranked_VVN among_II the_AT worst_JJT off_II on_II any_DD scale_NN1 of_IO urban_JJ deprivation_NN1 (_( Harrison_NP1 ,_, 1983_MC )_) ._. 
Harrison_NP1 describes_VVZ (_( p._NNU 369_MC )_) the_AT way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT inner_JJ urban_JJ powder-keg_NN1 leads_VVZ to_II a_AT1 vicious_JJ circle_NN1 ,_, with_IW many_DA2 victims_NN2 ,_, but_CCB few_DA2 individual_JJ villains_NN2 :_: The_AT police_NN2 force_NN1 face_VV0 the_AT virtually_RR impossible_JJ task_NN1 of_IO keeping_VVG the_AT lid_NN1 on_II the_AT explosive_JJ mixture_NN1 of_IO ingredients_NN2 that_CST the_AT dynamics_NN of_IO British_JJ society_NN1 have_VH0 assembled_VVN in_II the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 mixture_NN1 ,_, heated_VVN by_II recession_NN1 and_CC high_JJ unemployment_NN1 ,_, inevitably_RR generates_VVZ a_AT1 high_JJ level_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 necessitates_VVZ ,_, in_II turn_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 far_RG more_RGR numerous_JJ and_CC ubiquitous_JJ police_NN2 presence_NN1 than_CSN in_II other_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO area_NN1 ,_, far_RG more_RGR frequent_JJ unpleasant_JJ contact_NN1 with_IW the_AT public_NN1 as_CSA potential_JJ suspects_NN2 ,_, and_CC far_RG greater_JJR opportunities_NN2 for_IF police_NN2 misjudgment_NN1 or_CC abuse_NN1 ._. 
The_AT inevitable_JJ sufferers_NN2 ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, are_VBR the_AT poor_JJ ,_, of_IO whom_PNQO those_DD2 who_PNQS actually_RR commit_VV0 the_AT offences_NN2 that_CST concern_VV0 the_AT police_NN2 are_VBR a_AT1 tiny_JJ minority_NN1 and_CC whom_PNQO ,_, indeed_RR ,_, it_PPH1 should_VM be_VBI the_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 to_TO protect_VVI ._. 
Not_XX only_RR are_VBR the_AT most_RGT disadvantaged_JJ on_II the_AT receiving_JJ end_NN1 of_IO most_DAT crime_NN1 ,_, argues_VVZ Harrison_NP1 ,_, they_PPHS2 also_RR have_VH0 to_TO put_VVI up_RP with_IW the_AT heaviest_JJT police_NN2 presence_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI stopped_VVN and_CC searched_VVN ,_, and_CC to_TO be_VBI the_AT victim_NN1 of_IO mistaken_JJ arrest_NN1 or_CC conviction_NN1 ._. 
At_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 ,_, the_AT residents_NN2 of_IO the_AT poorest_JJT areas_NN2 have_VH0 to_TO suffer_VVI ,_, in_II a_AT1 way_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ not_XX true_JJ of_IO those_DD2 who_PNQS live_VV0 elsewhere_RL ,_, a_AT1 growing_JJ fear_NN1 of_IO attack_NN1 on_II themselves_PPX2 or_CC their_APPGE property_NN1 ._. 
Improved_JJ police_NN2 methods_NN2 might_VM help_VVI ,_, writes_VVZ Harrison_NP1 ,_, to_TO contain_VVI the_AT problem_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB ,_, without_IW other_JJ changes_NN2 ,_, the_AT result_NN1 is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 '_GE society_NN1 of_IO barricaded_JJ self-defence_NN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 steady_JJ erosion_NN1 of_IO civil_JJ liberties_NN2 '_GE ._. 
And_CC he_PPHS1 concludes_VVZ ,_, '_" of_IO all_DB the_AT warnings_NN2 that_CST the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 has_VHZ to_TO offer_VVI for_IF the_AT direction_NN1 British_JJ society_NN1 is_VBZ taking_VVG ,_, this_DD1 is_VBZ perhaps_RR the_AT most_RGT sinister_JJ '_GE ._. 
Harrison_NP1 's_GE vision_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 nightmarish_JJ future_NN1 for_IF inner_JJ cities_NN2 ,_, locked_VVN in_II a_AT1 cold_JJ or_CC hot_JJ war_NN1 between_II have-nots_NN2 and_CC the_AT forces_NN2 of_IO public_JJ order_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ echoed_VVN by_II Robert_NP1 Chesshyre_NP1 (_( 1987_MC ,_, p._NN1 95_MC )_) ,_, who_PNQS concluded_VVD that_CST by_II the_AT late_JJ 1980s_MC2 :_: The_AT basic_JJ social_JJ contract_NN1 ,_, whereby_RRQ citizens_NN2 enjoy_VV0 certain_JJ rights_NN2 including_II health_NN1 care_NN1 ,_, decent_JJ education_NN1 and_CC housing_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 job_NN1 in_II31 return_II32 for_II33 which_DDQ they_PPHS2 observe_VV0 the_AT rule_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ breaking_VVG down_RP ._. 
As_II a_AT1 consequence_NN1 an_AT1 underclass_NN1 was_VBDZ evolving_VVG football_NN1 hooligans_NN2 ,_, muggers_NN2 ,_, inner_JJ city_NN1 rioters_NN2 somewhat_RR more_RGR frightening_JJ than_CSN their_APPGE Dickensian_JJ forebears_NN2 because_CS they_PPHS2 were_VBDR mobile_JJ and_CC all_DB too_RG visible_JJ ._. 
Recently_RR ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, there_EX has_VHZ been_VBN an_AT1 added_JJ dimension_NN1 part_NN1 media-and-politician_NN1 inflated_VVD ,_, part_NN1 real_JJ :_: drugs_NN2 ._. 
The_AT spiral_NN1 in_II drug_NN1 abuse_NN1 and_CC trafficking_NN1 ,_, with_IW direct_JJ consequences_NN2 for_IF the_AT AIDS_NN1 epidemic_NN1 ,_, has_VHZ created_VVN a_AT1 new_JJ kind_NN1 of_IO alarm_NN1 ._. 
The_AT early_JJ 1980s_MC2 witnessed_VVD a_AT1 radical_JJ change_NN1 in_II patterns_NN2 of_IO heroin_NN1 taking_VVG ,_, alongside_II the_AT global_JJ increase_NN1 ._. 
Smoking_JJ heroin_NN1 (_( '_GE chasing_VVG the_AT dragon_NN1 '_GE )_) was_VBDZ one_MC1 feature_NN1 of_IO the_AT upsurge_NN1 ._. 
Another_DD1 was_VBDZ the_AT increased_JJ availability_NN1 of_IO ,_, and_CC demand_VV0 for_IF ,_, cocaine_NN1 ._. 
Sensational_JJ media_NN and_CC police_NN2 reports_VVZ in_II 1989_MC seemed_VVD to_TO suggest_VVI an_AT1 increased_JJ use_NN1 of_IO '_GE crack_NN1 '_GE among_II young_JJ people_NN in_II parts_NN2 of_IO south_ND1 London_NP1 ,_, Liverpool_NP1 ,_, and_CC Birmingham_NP1 with_IW attendant_JJ fears_NN2 that_CST this_DD1 particularly_RR dangerous_JJ substance_NN1 might_VM become_VVI widespread_JJ ,_, as_CSA it_PPH1 was_VBDZ reported_VVN to_TO be_VBI in_II parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT United_NP1 States._NP1 for_IF the_AT moment_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, the_AT pattern_NN1 of_IO drug_NN1 abuse_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 remains_VVZ as_RG varied_JJ as_CSA ever_RR with_IW home-produced_JJ drugs_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 amphetamines_NN2 as_CSA serious_JJ a_AT1 problem_NN1 as_CSA those_DD2 that_CST hit_VVD the_AT headlines_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 symptom_NN1 of_IO public_JJ anxiety_NN1 about_II urban_JJ squalor_NN1 and_CC ,_, less_RGR creditably_RR ,_, of_IO class_NN1 and_CC racial_JJ prejudice_NN1 that_DD1 '_VBZ drugs_NN2 '_GE and_CC '_GE inner_JJ cities_NN2 '_GE are_VBR automatically_RR linked_VVN in_II the_AT popular_JJ consciousness_NN1 (_( MacGregor_NP1 ,_, 1989a_FO )_) ._. 
Nevertheless_RR ,_, drug-taking_NN1 and_CC more_RGR particularly_RR the_AT disruptive_JJ social_JJ consequences_NN2 of_IO addiction_NN1 ,_, are_VBR especially_RR serious_JJ in_II areas_NN2 of_IO city_NN1 poverty_NN1 (_( Burr_NN1 ,_, 1989_MC )_) ._. 
In_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, if_CS life_NN1 was_VBDZ always_RR harder_JJR in_II the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 than_CSN elsewhere_RL ,_, and_CC if_CS conditions_NN2 may_VM temporarily_RR have_VHI been_VBN alleviated_VVN by_II the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 and_CC rising_VVG incomes_NN2 ,_, the_AT last_MD decade_NNT1 has_VHZ been_VBN widely_RR represented_VVN as_II a_AT1 period_NN1 of_IO deterioration_NN1 ._. 
Moreover_RR ,_, few_DA2 would_VM dispute_VVI that_CST this_DD1 apparent_JJ decline_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 reality_NN1 :_: the_AT first_MD words_NN2 of_IO the_AT Prime_JJ Minister_NN1 herself_PPX1 ,_, after_CS the_AT result_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1987_MC election_NN1 was_VBDZ known_VVN ,_, were_VBDR an_AT1 acknowledgement_NN1 of_IO the_AT challenge_NN1 posed_VVN to_II Government_NN1 by_II the_AT '_GE inner_JJ cities_NN2 '_GE ._. 
What_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN lacking_VVG however_RR as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT political_JJ will_NN1 to_TO do_VDI something_PN1 has_VHZ been_VBN any_DD shared_JJ agreement_NN1 on_II the_AT cause_NN1 ._. 
Can_VV0 the_AT problems_NN2 of_IO urban_JJ poverty_NN1 be_VBI blamed_VVN on_II individual_JJ pathology_NN1 ?_? 
On_II feckless_JJ parents_NN2 and_CC grandparents_NN2 ?_? 
Or_CC on_II the_AT social_JJ or_CC physical_JJ environment_NN1 the_AT replacement_NN1 of_IO companionably_RR unhygienic_JJ slums_NN2 by_II soulless_JJ tower_NN1 blocks_NN2 with_IW broken_JJ lifts_NN2 (_( Coleman_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, 1985_MC )_) ?_? 
Or_CC would_VM a_AT1 simple_JJ injection_NN1 of_IO resources_NN2 transform_VV0 Kafkaesque_JJ honeycombs_NN2 into_II happy_JJ living-spaces_NN2 ,_, with_IW a_AT1 consequent_JJ decline_NN1 in_II inner-city_JJ ills_NN2 ?_? 
'_GE A_AT1 duke_NN1 can_VM live_VVI comfortably_RR in_II a_AT1 castle_NN1 ,_, after_II all_DB '_GE ,_, the_AT architect_NN1 Cedric_NP1 Price_NP1 is_VBZ quoted_VVN as_CSA saying_VVG ._. 
'_" You_PPY and_CC I_PPIS1 would_VM die_VVI of_IO frostbite_NN1 ._. 
Same_DA building_NN1 just_RR a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO money_NN1 and_CC management_NN1 '_GE (_( Parkin_NP1 ,_, 1989_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT view_NN1 that_CST only_JJ '_GE outstanding_JJ management_NN1 '_GE could_VM meet_VVI the_AT problem_NN1 was_VBDZ held_VVN by_II the_AT Audit_NN1 Commission_NN1 (_( 1987_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT picture_NN1 painted_VVN by_II the_AT Commission_NN1 's_GE report_NN1 on_II inner_JJ London_NP1 is_VBZ as_RG gruesome_JJ as_CSA any_DD ever_RR presented_VVN (_( and_CC is_VBZ itself_PPX1 revealing_VVG of_IO common_JJ prejudices_NN2 in_II its_APPGE choice_NN1 of_IO indicators_NN2 of_IO deprivation_NN1 )_) :_: In_II some_DD London_NP1 boroughs_NN2 ,_, unemployment_NN1 among_II young_JJ men_NN2 exceeds_VVZ 45%_NNU ;_; in_II some_DD places_NN2 ,_, among_II young_JJ blacks_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 exceeds_VVZ 60%_NNU ._. 
More_DAR than_CSN one_MC1 child_NN1 in_II three_MC is_VBZ born_VVN into_II a_AT1 single_JJ parent_NN1 family_NN1 ._. 
Half_DB the_AT school_NN1 leavers_NN2 have_VH0 no_AT O_ZZ1 levels_NN2 or_CC their_APPGE CSE_NN1 equivalents_NN2 ._. 
Homelessness_NN1 ,_, housing_VVG conditions_NN2 ,_, crime_NN1 are_VBR worsening_JJ year_NNT1 by_II year_NNT1 ,_, as_CSA the_AT cycle_NN1 of_IO urban_JJ deprivation_NN1 becomes_VVZ more_RRR established_VVN (_( p._NN1 1_MC1 )_) Drawing_VVG on_II North_NP1 American_JJ experience_NN1 ,_, the_AT Commission_NN1 concluded_VVD that_DD1 '_VBZ poor_JJ management_NN1 was_VBDZ an_AT1 important_JJ contributory_JJ factor_NN1 to_II New_NP1 York_NP1 's_GE problems_NN2 '_GE ,_, and_CC sought_VVD to_TO apply_VVI the_AT same_DA lessons_NN2 here_RL (_( p._NNU 2_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT Government_NN1 's_GE post-1987_JJ initiatives_NN2 have_VH0 ,_, to_II some_DD extent_NN1 ,_, reflected_VVD a_AT1 diagnosis_NN1 based_VVN on_II the_AT need_NN1 for_IF better_JJR management_NN1 though_CS on_II the_AT principle_NN1 that_CST central_JJ authorities_NN2 can_VM provide_VVI a_AT1 firmer_JJR grip_NN1 than_CSN local_JJ ones_NN2 but_CCB combined_VVN with_IW an_AT1 anti-collectivist_JJ belief_NN1 in_II the_AT restorative_JJ powers_NN2 of_IO capitalism_NN1 ._. 
Leech_NN1 and_CC Amin_NP1 (_( 1988_MC ,_, p._NN1 14_MC )_) summarize_VV0 this_DD1 approach_NN1 ,_, not_XX unfairly_RR ,_, in_II the_AT following_JJ terms_NN2 :_: the_AT encouragement_NN1 of_IO private_JJ investment_NN1 and_CC the_AT liberation_NN1 of_IO the_AT market_NN1 ;_; the_AT containment_NN1 of_IO the_AT forces_NN2 of_IO social_JJ discontent_NN1 ;_; the_AT control_NN1 of_IO the_AT powers_NN2 of_IO the_AT local_JJ authorities_NN2 ;_; and_CC the_AT encouragement_NN1 of_IO the_AT movement_NN1 of_IO the_AT wealthy_JJ into_II the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 thus_RR creating_VVG buffer_NN1 areas_NN2 of_IO Tory_JJ support_NN1 ,_, accentuating_VVG inequalities_NN2 and_CC injustice_NN1 and_CC (_( hopefully_RR though_CS not_XX necessarily_RR )_) reducing_VVG the_AT potential_NN1 for_IF conflict_NN1 among_II the_AT urban_JJ poor_JJ ._. 
The_AT main_JJ thrust_NN1 of_IO the_AT Government_NN1 's_GE policy_NN1 is_VBZ contained_VVN in_II the_AT January_NPM1 1988_MC White_JJ Paper_NN1 on_II Regional_JJ Policy_NN1 and_CC the_AT Enterprise_NN1 Economy_NN1 ,_, in_II the_AT new_JJ Employment_NN1 Training_NN1 programme_NN1 ,_, and_CC especially_RR in_II the_AT March_NPM1 1988_MC Action_NN1 for_IF Cities_NN2 programme_VV0 all_DB resting_VVG on_II wider_JJR reforms_NN2 to_II local_JJ government_NN1 structure_NN1 and_CC finance_NN1 ,_, and_CC to_II education_NN1 and_CC housing_NN1 ._. 
The_AT most_RGT striking_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 package_NN1 ,_, apart_II21 from_II22 its_APPGE aim_NN1 actively_RR to_TO involve_VVI employers_NN2 and_CC entrepreneurs_NN2 ,_, is_VBZ a_AT1 sharp_JJ reduction_NN1 in_II the_AT role_NN1 of_IO local_JJ government_NN1 ._. 
Despite_II the_AT contemporary_JJ tone_NN1 of_IO much_DA1 of_IO Action_NN1 for_IF Cities_NN2 ,_, the_AT programme_NN1 's_GE heritage_NN1 can_VM be_VBI traced_VVN to_II the_AT early_JJ 1960s_MC2 studies_NN2 which_DDQ provided_VVD the_AT basis_NN1 for_IF the_AT 1965_MC MilnerHolland_NP1 Report_NN1 on_II housing_NN1 and_CC the_AT 1967_MC Plowden_NP1 Report_NN1 on_II education_NN1 ,_, as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO which_DDQ general_JJ improvement_NN1 areas_NN2 and_CC education_NN1 priority_NN1 areas_NN2 were_VBDR established_VVN ._. 
The_AT 1970s_MC2 '_GE Urban_JJ Programme_NN1 '_GE had_VHN a_AT1 social_JJ ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 economic_JJ ,_, emphasis_NN1 and_CC was_VBDZ administered_VVN by_II the_AT Home_NN1 Office_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ initiated_VVN partly_RR in_II31 response_II32 to_II33 the_AT furore_NN1 caused_VVN by_II Enoch_NP1 Powell_NP1 's_GE 1969_MC '_GE rivers_NN2 of_IO blood_NN1 '_GE speech_NN1 ,_, much_DA1 as_CSA disturbances_NN2 at_II the_AT 1976_MC Notting_NP1 Hill_NP1 Carnival_NN1 prompted_VVD further_JJR steps_NN2 on_II41 the_II42 part_II43 of_II44 the_AT Department_NN1 of_IO the_AT Environment_NN1 '_GE A_ZZ1 riot_NN1 makes_VVZ a_AT1 much_RR bigger_JJR impact_NN1 on_II government_NN1 thinking_NN1 '_GE ,_, as_CSA Donnison_NP1 (_( 1987_MC )_) has_VHZ pointed_VVN out_RP ,_, '_" than_CSN any_DD amount_NN1 of_IO earnest_JJ and_CC accurate_JJ research_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT Urban_JJ Programme_NN1 consisted_VVN of_IO grants_NN2 and_CC initiatives_NN2 under_II the_AT 1969_MC Local_JJ Government_NN1 Grants_NN2 (_( Social_JJ Need_NN1 )_) Act_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ was_VBDZ intended_VVN as_II a_AT1 flexible_JJ instrument_NN1 to_TO provide_VVI supplementary_JJ help_NN1 to_II local_JJ authorities_NN2 in_II the_AT fields_NN2 of_IO housing_NN1 ,_, education_NN1 ,_, and_CC health_NN1 ._. 
Originally_RR ,_, the_AT Programme_NN1 supplemented_VVD existing_JJ central_JJ and_CC local_JJ government_NN1 schemes_NN2 designed_VVN to_TO meet_VVI special_JJ needs_NN2 in_II urban_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
The_AT scope_NN1 was_VBDZ extended_VVN in_II an_AT1 '_GE enhanced_JJ '_GE Urban_JJ Programme_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ included_VVD economic_JJ and_CC environmental_JJ as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 social_JJ projects_NN2 ,_, and_CC was_VBDZ specifically_RR directed_VVN at_II the_AT inner_JJ urban_JJ areas_NN2 where_RRQ the_AT problems_NN2 were_VBDR most_RGT severe_JJ ._. 
Earlier_RRR ,_, the_AT change_NN1 of_IO emphasis_NN1 from_II a_AT1 '_GE social_JJ '_GE to_II an_AT1 '_GE economic_JJ and_CC environmental_JJ '_GE focus_NN1 had_VHD been_VBN reflected_VVN in_II a_AT1 switch_NN1 of_IO responsibility_NN1 for_IF the_AT Programme_NN1 from_II the_AT Home_NN1 Office_NN1 to_II the_AT Department_NN1 of_IO the_AT Environment_NN1 ._. 
The_AT '_GE enhanced_JJ Programme_NN1 resulted_VVN from_II the_AT 1978_MC Inner_JJ Urban_JJ Areas_NN2 Act_VV0 ,_, based_VVN on_II a_AT1 White_JJ Paper_NN1 ,_, published_VVD the_AT previous_JJ year_NNT1 ,_, on_II Policy_NN1 for_IF the_AT Inner_JJ Cities_NN2 (_( DoE_NP1 ,_, 1977_MC )_) ,_, the_AT first_MD comprehensive_JJ policy_NN1 statement_NN1 on_II the_AT subject_JJ to_TO acknowledge_VVI it_PPH1 as_II a_AT1 definable_JJ and_CC cohesive_JJ problem_NN1 ._. 
The_AT White_JJ Paper_NN1 drew_VVD on_II studies_NN2 conducted_VVN earlier_RRR in_II the_AT decade_NNT1 in_II Liverpool_NP1 ,_, Birmingham_NP1 ,_, and_CC London_NP1 which_DDQ pointed_VVD to_II a_AT1 debilitating_JJ flight_NN1 of_IO capital_NN1 and_CC skilled_JJ labour_NN1 from_II the_AT critical_JJ areas_NN2 of_IO deprivation_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 key_JJ aspect_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1977_MC White_JJ Paper_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT stress_NN1 it_PPH1 placed_VVD on_II the_AT wider_JJR effects_NN2 of_IO poverty_NN1 :_: that_CST it_PPH1 was_VBDZ not_XX just_RR those_DD2 with_IW acute_JJ needs_NN2 who_PNQS suffered_VVD ._. 
It_PPH1 argued_VVD that_CST in_II talking_VVG about_II inner_JJ cities_NN2 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ vital_JJ to_TO think_VVI in_II terms_NN2 not_XX just_RR of_IO individuals_NN2 ,_, but_CCB of_IO society_NN1 ;_; that_CST the_AT multiple_JJ deprivations_NN2 of_IO the_AT worst_JJT hit_NN1 areas_NN2 affected_VVN all_DB the_AT residents_NN2 ;_; that_CST the_AT consequences_NN2 included_VVD a_AT1 pervasive_JJ sense_NN1 of_IO neglect_NN1 and_CC decay_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 decline_NN1 in_II community_NN1 spirit_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 low_JJ standard_NN1 of_IO neighbourhood_NN1 facilities_NN2 ,_, and_CC an_AT1 increase_NN1 in_II crime_NN1 and_CC vandalism_NN1 ;_; and_CC that_DD1 ,_, without_IW government_NN1 intervention_NN1 ,_, the_AT future_NN1 was_VBDZ one_MC1 of_IO reduced_JJ job_NN1 opportunities_NN2 ,_, deteriorating_JJ housing_NN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 decline_NN1 in_II public_JJ services_NN2 ._. 
The_AT document_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT legislation_NN1 that_CST derived_VVN from_II it_PPH1 ,_, pointed_VVD to_II a_AT1 positively_RR discriminatory_JJ approach_NN1 :_: with_IW both_DB2 central_JJ and_CC local_JJ government_NN1 supplementing_VVG existing_JJ programmes_NN2 in_II such_DA a_AT1 way_NN1 as_CSA to_TO strengthen_VVI local_JJ economies_NN2 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT physical_JJ and_CC social_JJ environment_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA measures_NN2 constituted_VVD the_AT present_JJ Government_NN1 's_GE heritage_NN1 ,_, when_CS it_PPH1 took_VVD office_NN1 in_II 1979_MC ._. 
None_PN of_IO them_PPHO2 ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, anticipated_VVD the_AT scale_NN1 of_IO the_AT problems_NN2 which_DDQ were_VBDR caused_VVN by_II the_AT slump_NN1 and_CC collapse_NN1 of_IO much_DA1 of_IO what_DDQ remained_VVD of_IO inner_JJ urban_JJ manufacturing_NN1 industry_NN1 in_II the_AT early_JJ 1980s_MC2 ._. 
Neither_RR ,_, at_RR21 first_RR22 ,_, did_VDD the_AT incoming_JJ administration_NN1 foresee_VV0 the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO rising_VVG unemployment_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI especially_RR serious_JJ among_II the_AT urban_JJ young_JJ ._. 
True_JJ ,_, the_AT new_JJ Secretary_NN1 of_IO State_NN1 for_IF the_AT Environment_NN1 laid_VVD stress_NN1 ,_, from_II the_AT outset_NN1 ,_, on_II the_AT need_NN1 for_IF economic_JJ regeneration_NN1 ,_, and_CC indicated_VVD his_APPGE sympathy_NN1 for_IF the_AT voluntary_JJ sector_NN1 in_II the_AT tackling_NN1 of_IO urban_JJ problems_NN2 ._. 
The_AT previous_JJ Government_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, had_VHD already_RR pointed_VVN to_II the_AT need_NN1 to_TO revitalize_VVI urban_JJ economies_NN2 ,_, and_CC at_RR21 first_RR22 the_AT shift_NN1 was_VBDZ more_RGR rhetorical_JJ than_CSN real_JJ ._. 
Michael_NP1 Heseltine_NP1 (_( 1987_MC ,_, p._NN1 138_MC )_) has_VHZ since_RR claimed_VVN that_DD1 '_VBZ we_PPIS2 set_VV0 a_AT1 new_JJ objective_NN1 :_: to_TO make_VVI the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 places_NN2 where_RRQ people_NN would_VM want_VVI to_TO live_VVI and_CC work_NN1 and_CC where_CS the_AT private_JJ investor_NN1 would_VM be_VBI willing_JJ to_TO put_VVI his_APPGE money_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Partnership_NN1 became_VVD his_APPGE slogan_NN1 the_AT partnership_NN1 of_IO public_NN1 and_CC private_JJ brains_NN2 and_CC money_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 new_JJ Urban_JJ Development_NN1 Grant_NP1 was_VBDZ devised_VVN ,_, to_II pump-prime_JJ with_IW public_JJ funds_NN2 schemes_NN2 which_DDQ would_VM then_RT attract_VVI private_JJ investment_NN1 ._. 
Heseltine_NP1 's_GE vision_NN1 was_VBDZ of_IO '_GE partnerships_NN2 which_DDQ recognise_VV0 that_CST there_EX are_VBR some_DD things_NN2 that_CST only_JJ governments_NN2 can_VM pay_VVI for_IF ,_, but_CCB also_RR that_CST the_AT ingenuity_NN1 and_CC flexibility_NN1 of_IO the_AT private_JJ sector_NN1 is_VBZ indispensable_JJ '_GE (_( p._NNU 156_MC )_) ._. 
He_PPHS1 claims_VVZ that_CST serious_JJ work_NN1 on_II inner-city_JJ policy_NN1 began_VVD in_II 1979_MC :_: but_CCB it_PPH1 was_VBDZ ,_, undoubtedly_RR ,_, the_AT riots_NN2 of_IO 1981_MC ,_, coinciding_VVG with_IW the_AT biggest_JJT drop_NN1 in_II employment_NN1 and_CC job_NN1 vacancies_NN2 since_CS the_AT war_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ gave_VVD impetus_NN1 to_II the_AT new_JJ approach_NN1 ._. 
Urban_JJ Development_NN1 Corporations_NN2 were_VBDR introduced_VVN in_II 1981_MC in_II London_NP1 Docklands_NP1 and_CC Merseyside_NP1 ,_, and_CC the_AT Urban_JJ Development_NN1 Grant_NP1 came_VVD in_RP late_RR the_AT following_JJ year_NNT1 ._. 
Conservative_JJ instincts_NN2 were_VBDR ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, to_TO minimize_VVI within_II the_AT '_GE partnership_NN1 '_GE state_NN1 involvement_NN1 and_CC expenditure_NN1 ,_, relative_II21 to_II22 that_DD1 of_IO private_JJ enterprise_NN1 ._. 
Yet_RR ,_, the_AT irony_NN1 of_IO the_AT early_JJ 1980s_MC2 as_II a_AT1 deteriorating_JJ ,_, but_CCB perennial_JJ ,_, urban_JJ problem_NN1 rapidly_RR became_VVD the_AT most_RGT acute_JJ aspect_NN1 of_IO the_AT crisis_NN1 of_IO mass_JJ unemployment_NN1 was_VBDZ that_CST a_AT1 Tory_JJ government_NN1 ,_, willy-nilly_RR ,_, found_VVD itself_PPX1 presiding_VVG over_II an_AT1 increase_NN1 in_II state_NN1 intervention_NN1 through_II a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO agencies_NN2 ._. 
The_AT increased_JJ scale_NN1 of_IO operations_NN2 also_RR ushered_VVN in_RP another_DD1 fashion_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1980s_MC2 new_JJ management_NN1 structures_NN2 ._. 
Thus_RR in_II 1985_MC City_NN1 Action_NN1 Teams_NN2 were_VBDR introduced_VVN to_II each_DD1 '_GE Inner_JJ City_NN1 Partnership_NN1 '_GE area_NN1 to_TO co-ordinate_VVI the_AT work_NN1 of_IO the_AT three_MC government_NN1 departments_NN2 involved_VVD ._. 
Task_NN1 forces_NN2 ,_, meanwhile_RR ,_, were_VBDR directed_VVN to_TO tackle_VVI youth_NN1 unemployment_NN1 ._. 
By_II 1986/7_MC the_AT Urban_JJ Programme_NN1 was_VBDZ supporting_VVG 1,380_MC starter_NN1 units_NN2 and_CC 400_MC business_NN1 starts_VVZ in_II enterprise_NN1 workshops_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ providing_VVG 27,500_MC training_NN1 places_NN2 (_( often_RR in_II31 conjunction_II32 with_II33 the_AT Manpower_NN1 Services_NN2 Commission_NN1 )_) :_: some_DD 2,500_MC buildings_NN2 were_VBDR being_VBG improved_VVN ;_; estate_NN1 action_NN1 aimed_VVD to_TO tackle_VVI run_VVN down_RP housing_VVG ;_; and_CC a_AT1 large_JJ number_NN1 of_IO new_JJ '_GE partnerships_NN2 '_GE (_( which_DDQ some_DD might_VM see_VVI as_CSA subsidies_NN2 ,_, or_CC discredited_JJ regional_JJ grants_NN2 ,_, in_II a_AT1 new_JJ guise_NN1 )_) were_VBDR in_II operation_NN1 ,_, in_II an_AT1 effort_NN1 to_TO bring_VVI private_JJ investment_NN1 to_II run-down_JJ urban_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
By_II 1988_MC it_PPH1 was_VBDZ claimed_VVN that_CST 200_MC million_NNO of_IO Urban_JJ Development_NN1 Grant_NP1 and_CC Urban_JJ Regeneration_NN1 Grant_NP1 had_VHD successfully_RR '_GE levered_JJ '_" more_DAR than_CSN 800_MC million_NNO of_IO private_JJ investment_NN1 into_II the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 (_( although_CS how_RGQ much_DA1 of_IO the_AT latter_DA sum_NN1 might_VM have_VHI been_VBN invested_VVN in_II any_DD case_NN1 is_VBZ difficult_JJ to_TO say_VVI )_) ._. 
Meanwhile_RR ,_, there_EX were_VBDR other_JJ incentive_NN1 schemes_NN2 Enterprise_NN1 Zones_NN2 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, and_CC simplified_JJ Planning_NN1 Zones_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ aimed_VVD to_TO lift_VVI tax_NN1 and_CC planning_NN1 '_GE barriers_NN2 '_GE in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO facilitate_VVI investment_NN1 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, while_CS with_IW one_MC1 hand_NN1 trying_VVG to_TO hold_VVI down_RP expenditure_NN1 by_II local_JJ authorities_NN2 ,_, the_AT Government_NN1 found_VVD itself_PPX1 by_II the_AT late_JJ 1980s_MC2 involved_JJ with_IW the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 in_II massive_JJ ear-marked_VVD spending_VVG on_II inner_JJ urban_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Department_NN1 of_IO the_AT Environment_NN1 alone_RR by_II 1988_MC was_VBDZ spending_VVG half_DB a_AT1 billion_NNO pounds_NN2 out_II21 of_II22 an_AT1 Action_NN1 for_IF Cities_NN2 total_NN1 ,_, involving_VVG most_DAT Home_NN1 departments_NN2 ,_, estimated_VVN at_II 3_MC billion_NNO ._. 
Perhaps_RR a_AT1 Labour_JJ government_NN1 would_VM have_VHI spent_VVN even_RR more_RRR :_: it_PPH1 would_VM certainly_RR have_VHI spent_VVN it_PPH1 in_II different_JJ ways_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 curious_JJ comment_NN1 on_II Thatcherism_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, that_CST the_AT administration_NN1 most_RRT committed_VVN to_II a_AT1 reduction_NN1 in_II the_AT role_NN1 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 ,_, and_CC in_II the_AT need_NN1 for_IF an_AT1 independent_JJ private_JJ sector_NN1 ,_, has_VHZ spent_VVN more_RRR on_II specific_JJ urban_JJ regeneration_NN1 and_CC employment_NN1 schemes_NN2 and_CC incentives_NN2 to_II private_JJ investment_NN1 in_II urban_JJ areas_NN2 than_CSN any_DD other_JJ in_II recent_JJ history_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT most_RGT bizarre_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 policy_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT effective_JJ murder_NN1 of_IO the_AT voluntary_JJ sector_NN1 ,_, and_CC its_APPGE appropriation_NN1 ,_, by_II subterfuge_NN1 ,_, into_II the_AT Tory_JJ version_NN1 of_IO the_AT corporate_JJ state_NN1 ._. 
Conservatives_NN2 have_VH0 always_RR lauded_VVN the_AT '_GE voluntarist_NN1 '_GE principle_NN1 in_II welfare_NN1 ,_, and_CC encouraged_VVD it_PPH1 from_II platforms_NN2 ._. 
Faced_VVN ,_, however_RR ,_, with_IW the_AT catastrophic_JJ increase_NN1 in_II unemployment_NN1 and_CC the_AT need_NN1 to_TO occupy_VVI large_JJ numbers_NN2 of_IO workless_JJ people_NN without_IW directly_RR employing_VVG them_PPHO2 (_( which_DDQ would_VM have_VHI run_VVN counter_NN1 to_II the_AT economic_JJ doctrine_NN1 which_DDQ had_VHD led_VVN to_II the_AT redundancy_NN1 of_IO many_DA2 of_IO them_PPHO2 in_II the_AT first_MD place_NN1 )_) ,_, the_AT Government_NN1 poured_VVD money_NN1 into_II any_DD '_GE voluntary_JJ '_GE agency_NN1 willing_JJ to_TO put_VVI in_II a_AT1 bid_NN1 for_IF government-funded_JJ cheap_JJ labour_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 result_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT triumphant_JJ expansion_NN1 of_IO some_DD charitable_JJ organizations_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ rejoiced_VVD both_RR at_II their_APPGE new-found_JJ importance_NN1 and_CC at_II the_AT Government_NN1 's_GE munificence_NN1 ._. 
Another_DD1 was_VBDZ the_AT transformation_NN1 of_IO many_DA2 such_DA bodies_NN2 ,_, already_RR heavily_RR subsidized_VVD from_II public_JJ funds_NN2 ,_, into_II de_JJ21 facto_JJ22 agencies_NN2 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ financed_VVD them_PPHO2 and_CC indirectly_RR determined_VVN their_APPGE policy_NN1 ._. 
Nowhere_RL was_VBDZ the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 clumsy_JJ sleight_NN1 of_IO hand_NN1 more_RGR evident_JJ than_CSN in_II the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 ,_, where_CS voluntary_JJ organizations_NN2 had_VHD been_VBN most_RGT active_JJ ,_, and_CC where_CS the_AT Government_NN1 was_VBDZ most_RGT anxious_JJ for_IF them_PPHO2 to_TO mop_VVI up_RP unemployment_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, the_AT later_JJR withdrawal_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 support_NN1 ,_, with_IW the_AT scrapping_NN1 of_IO the_AT Community_NN1 Programme_NN1 as_CSA unemployment_NN1 receded_VVD ,_, left_VVD many_DA2 of_IO these_DD2 voluntary_JJ organizations_NN2 high_JJ and_CC dry_JJ ._. 
The_AT National_JJ Council_NN1 for_IF Voluntary_JJ Organizations_NN2 (_( NCVO_NP1 )_) has_VHZ suggested_VVN from_II a_AT1 recent_JJ survey_NN1 that_CST around_RG 3,000_MC projects_NN2 had_VHD been_VBN affected_VVN and_CC had_VHD lost_VVN 285_MC million_NNO in_II funding_NN1 (_( MacGregor_NP1 ,_, 1990_MC )_) ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, a_AT1 crucial_JJ element_NN1 in_II the_AT Government_NN1 's_GE anxiety_NN1 :_: the_AT high_JJ concentration_NN1 of_IO ethnic_JJ minorities_NN2 in_II the_AT areas_NN2 of_IO concern_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1981_MC nearly_RR 40_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 of_IO ethnic_JJ minorities_NN2 in_II the_AT UK_NP1 lived_VVD in_II '_GE partnership_NN1 '_GE or_CC '_GE programme_NN1 '_GE areas_NN2 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 danger_NN1 in_II reading_VVG back_RP from_II this_DD1 figure_NN1 another_DD1 stereotype_NN1 ,_, similar_JJ to_II the_AT Pavlovian_NN1 '_GE drug_NN1 addiction/inner_FU city_NN1 '_GE assumed_JJ link_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD urban_JJ areas_NN2 have_VH0 serious_JJ problems_NN2 without_IW a_AT1 major_JJ ethnic_JJ dimension_NN1 (_( Newcastle_NP1 ,_, Teesside_NP1 )_) ;_; not_XX all_DB members_NN2 of_IO ethnic_JJ minorities_NN2 are_VBR poor_JJ or_CC deprived_VVD ._. 
Nevertheless_RR ,_, the_AT high_JJ proportion_NN1 of_IO inner_JJ urban_JJ populations_NN2 composed_VVN of_IO people_NN from_II ethnic_JJ minorities_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT high_JJ incidence_NN1 among_II these_DD2 groups_NN2 of_IO all_DB the_AT indices_NN2 of_IO poverty_NN1 and_CC social_JJ and_CC environmental_JJ hardship_NN1 combined_VVN with_IW the_AT specific_JJ problem_NN1 of_IO inter-racial_JJ rivalry_NN1 ,_, harassment_NN1 ,_, and_CC tension_NN1 make_VV0 race_NN1 and_CC ethnicity_NN1 an_AT1 aspect_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ central_JJ to_II any_DD analysis_NN1 of_IO the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 and_CC of_IO any_DD ameliorative_JJ approach_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ with_IW the_AT aim_NN1 of_IO contributing_VVG to_II such_DA an_AT1 improvement_NN1 ,_, as_CSA the_AT representative_JJ body_NN1 of_IO employers_NN2 and_CC business_NN1 investors_NN2 ,_, that_CST the_AT 1988_MC Confederation_NN1 of_IO British_JJ Industry_NN1 (_( CBI_NP1 )_) Task_NN1 Force_NN1 on_II business_NN1 and_CC urban_JJ regeneration_NN1 came_VVD to_II three_MC conclusions_NN2 :_: first_MD (_( in_II31 line_II32 with_II33 the_AT Government_NN1 's_GE own_DA beliefs_NN2 )_) ,_, that_DD1 business_NN1 must_VM take_VVI the_AT lead_NN1 in_II reversing_VVG urban_JJ decline_NN1 ;_; second_MD ,_, that_DD1 charity_NN1 governmental_JJ or_CC voluntary_JJ can_VM not_XX in_II itself_PPX1 deal_VV0 with_IW problems_NN2 ,_, and_CC any_DD regeneration_NN1 must_VM spring_VVI from_II private_JJ investment_NN1 ,_, commercially_RR motivated_VVN ;_; and_CC third_MD ,_, that_CST the_AT potential_NN1 exists_VVZ for_IF such_DA investment_NN1 ,_, provided_CS21 that_CS22 early_JJ projects_NN2 are_VBR seen_VVN to_TO succeed_VVI (_( CBI_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC )_) ._. 
Echoing_VVG the_AT Government_NN1 ,_, the_AT CBI_NP1 stressed_VVD the_AT '_GE partnership_NN1 '_GE theme_NN1 ,_, involving_VVG developers_NN2 and_CC (_( for_IF the_AT CBI_NP1 )_) local_JJ authorities_NN2 ._. 
Leadership_NN1 in_II such_DA ventures_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, should_VM come_VVI from_II businessmen_NN2 ,_, not_XX local_JJ government_NN1 ._. 
The_AT essence_NN1 of_IO the_AT CBI_NP1 approach_NN1 as_CSA it_PPH1 admits_VVZ ,_, and_CC as_II the_AT Government_NN1 approves_VVZ is_VBZ enlightened_JJ self-interest_NN1 :_: salvation_NN1 will_VM only_RR come_VVI when_RRQ investors_NN2 want_VV0 to_TO invest_VVI ,_, not_XX when_RRQ well-meaning_JJ local_JJ politicians_NN2 and_CC bureaucrats_NN2 decide_VV0 that_CST they_PPHS2 ought_VMK to_TO do_VDI so_RR ._. 
Notably_RR absent_JJ from_II the_AT CBI_NP1 's_GE understanding_NN1 of_IO the_AT problems_NN2 of_IO inner_JJ cities_NN2 was_VBDZ any_DD notion_NN1 that_CST they_PPHS2 should_VM be_VBI met_VVN by_II national_JJ economic_JJ policy_NN1 ._. 
The_AT assumption_NN1 ,_, rather_RR ,_, was_VBDZ one_MC1 of_IO special_JJ ,_, even_RR isolated_VVN ,_, blackspots_NN2 that_CST can_VM be_VBI dealt_VVN with_IW by_II localized_JJ attention_NN1 ._. 
As_II an_AT1 organization_NN1 of_IO businessmen_NN2 ,_, the_AT CBI_NP1 naturally_RR perhaps_RR looked_VVN on_II the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 primarily_RR as_II a_AT1 business_NN1 opportunity_NN1 ._. 
Thus_RR a_AT1 special_JJ report_NN1 of_IO the_AT CBI_NP1 London_NP1 Region_NN1 Urban_JJ Regeneration_NN1 Task_NN1 Force_NN1 in_II October_NPM1 1988_MC concluded_VVD that_CST there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 need_NN1 for_IF partnerships_NN2 in_II which_DDQ government_NN1 ,_, local_JJ authorities_NN2 ,_, teachers_NN2 ,_, church_NN1 leaders_NN2 ,_, and_CC residents_NN2 would_VM all_DB play_VVI a_AT1 part_NN1 ,_, but_CCB with_IW business_NN1 taking_VVG the_AT lead_NN1 helped_VVN by_II government_NN1 subsidy_NN1 or_CC pump-priming_NN1 ._. 
The_AT bottom_JJ line_NN1 to_II private_JJ investment_NN1 remains_VVZ ,_, as_CSA always_RR ,_, the_AT extent_NN1 and_CC nature_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 funding_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 paradoxical_JJ consequence_NN1 of_IO central_JJ government_NN1 limits_VVZ to_II rate_NN1 support_NN1 grant_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 real-money_JJ leap_NN1 in_II business_NN1 rates_NN2 in_II some_DD areas_NN2 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 sizeable_JJ increase_NN1 in_II the_AT proportion_NN1 of_IO local_JJ budgets_NN2 paid_VVN through_II rates_NN2 by_II the_AT business_NN1 community_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 heightened_JJ business_NN1 interest_NN1 in_II local_JJ spending_NN1 and_CC revenue_NN1 raising_NN1 ,_, and_CC fermented_JJ anxiety_NN1 about_II the_AT operation_NN1 of_IO the_AT uniform_JJ business_NN1 rate_NN1 and_CC the_AT community_NN1 charge_NN1 :_: the_AT CBI_NP1 ,_, previously_RR concerned_JJ about_II fluctuating_JJ rates_NN2 ,_, is_VBZ now_RT concerned_JJ about_II the_AT commercial_JJ consequences_NN2 of_IO fluctuating_JJ services_NN2 ,_, as_CSA local_JJ authorities_NN2 try_VV0 to_TO manage_VVI their_APPGE finances_NN2 ._. 
To_II the_AT CBI_NP1 's_GE worries_NN2 about_II the_AT future_NN1 of_IO the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 is_VBZ added_VVN a_AT1 very_RG real_JJ concern_NN1 that_CST business_NN1 services_NN2 may_VM be_VBI placed_VVN high_JJ on_II the_AT list_NN1 for_IF cuts_NN2 by_II budget-chopping_JJ local_JJ authorities_NN2 ._. 
While_CS echoing_VVG the_AT Government_NN1 's_VBZ '_GE partnership_NN1 '_GE theme_NN1 in_II its_APPGE rhetoric_NN1 ,_, and_CC paying_VVG dutiful_JJ lip_NN1 service_NN1 to_II the_AT principle_NN1 of_IO laissez-faire_NN1 ,_, the_AT coded_JJ message_NN1 of_IO the_AT CBI_NP1 is_VBZ an_AT1 urgent_JJ demand_NN1 for_IF more_DAR government_NN1 funding_NN1 ,_, not_XX less_DAR ._. 
So_RG far_RR ,_, the_AT Government_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN unreceptive_JJ ._. 
In_II31 addition_II32 to_II33 the_AT Audit_NN1 Commission_NN1 and_CC the_AT CBI_NP1 ,_, Business_NN1 in_II the_AT Community_NN1 (_( BIC_NP1 )_) has_VHZ taken_VVN up_RP the_AT theme_NN1 of_IO '_GE partnership_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT problem_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, is_VBZ turning_VVG phrases_NN2 that_CST are_VBR warmly_RR applauded_VVN at_II rotary_JJ club_NN1 or_CC chamber_NN1 of_IO commerce_NN1 lunches_NN2 into_II serious_JJ investment_NN1 ._. 
Why_RRQ should_VM genuine_JJ money-makers_NN2 bother_VV0 ?_? 
'_" We_PPIS2 all_DB like_VV0 to_TO be_VBI liked_VVN '_GE ,_, as_CSA one_MC1 Northern_JJ businessman_NN1 recently_RR put_VV0 it_PPH1 ._. 
'_GE But_CCB ,_, in_II reality_NN1 ..._... what_DDQ we_PPIS2 are_VBR doing_VDG is_VBZ serving_VVG our_APPGE own_DA best_JJT interests_NN2 ...._... 
The_AT more_RGR successful_JJ the_AT town_NN1 and_CC country_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT more_DAR chance_NN1 we_PPIS2 as_II individuals_NN2 have_VH0 of_IO being_VBG successful_JJ ._. 
'_GE The_AT trouble_NN1 is_VBZ ,_, however_RR ,_, that_CST the_AT linking_NN1 of_IO individual_NN1 with_IW group_NN1 self-interest_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 sufficient_JJ incentive_NN1 for_IF smaller_JJR firms_NN2 struggling_VVG to_TO make_VVI a_AT1 profit_NN1 ,_, nor_CC indeed_RR for_IF large_JJ ,_, profitable_JJ organizations_NN2 ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT causes_NN2 of_IO the_AT inner-city_JJ crisis_NN1 has_VHZ ,_, precisely_RR ,_, been_VBN the_AT withering_JJ of_IO the_AT '_GE Victorian_JJ value_NN1 '_GE of_IO civic_JJ philanthropy_NN1 which_DDQ once_RR encouraged_VVN locally-based_JJ businesses_NN2 to_TO link_VVI commercial_JJ considerations_NN2 with_IW the_AT welfare_NN1 of_IO the_AT wider_JJR community_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ nave_NN1 to_TO imagine_VVI that_CST such_DA an_AT1 ethic_NN1 can_VM be_VBI revived_VVN by_II exhortation_NN1 alone_RR ,_, or_CC by_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO in_II uplifting_JJ but_CCB empty_JJ phraseology_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ ,_, indeed_RR ,_, to_TO turn_VVI the_AT logic_NN1 of_IO the_AT opponents_NN2 of_IO traditional_JJ regional_JJ policy_NN1 and_CC incentives_NN2 ,_, and_CC of_IO the_AT proponents_NN2 or_CC a_AT1 '_GE partnership_NN1 '_GE approach_NN1 ,_, on_II its_APPGE head_NN1 ._. 
'_GE Partnership_NN1 '_GE is_VBZ an_AT1 acknowledgement_NN1 that_CST business_NN1 will_VM not_XX invest_VVI without_IW encouragement_NN1 ,_, combined_VVN with_IW a_AT1 view_NN1 that_CST long-term_JJ investment_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI self-sustaining_JJ ._. 
But_CCB if_CS the_AT aim_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO encourage_VVI serious_JJ investment_NN1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ also_RR a_AT1 need_NN1 for_IF serious_JJ spending_NN1 on_II infrastructure_NN1 and_CC services_NN2 ,_, is_VBZ well_JJ as_CSA for_IF start-up_JJ finance_NN1 or_CC subsidy_NN1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 need_NN1 ,_, above_II all_DB ,_, for_IF an_AT1 environment_NN1 in_II which_DDQ a_AT1 fledgling_NN1 (_( or_CC established_VVN )_) business_NN1 will_VM feel_VVI comfortable_JJ and_CC wish_VVI to_TO remain_VVI ,_, because_II21 of_II22 local_JJ amenities_NN2 and_CC because_II21 of_II22 the_AT availability_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 healthy_JJ ,_, happy_JJ ,_, well-equipped_JJ workforce_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ certainly_RR arguable_JJ (_( and_CC many_DA2 progressive_JJ employers_NN2 would_VM agree_VVI )_) that_CST the_AT wisest_JJT use_NN1 of_IO public_JJ money_NN1 from_II a_AT1 strictly_RR economic_JJ point_NN1 of_IO view_NN1 would_VM be_VBI on_II schools_NN2 ,_, houses_NN2 ,_, and_CC medical_JJ services_NN2 ,_, together_RL with_IW relevant_JJ training_NN1 and_CC measures_NN2 to_TO reduce_VVI discrimination_NN1 ;_; in_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, that_CST the_AT agencies_NN2 which_DDQ most_RGT obviously_RR have_VH0 the_AT capacity_NN1 to_TO produce_VVI strategic_JJ planning_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 business-friendly_JJ kind_NN1 are_VBR precisely_RR those_DD2 which_DDQ this_DD1 pro-business_JJ administration_NN1 wishes_VVZ to_TO bypass_VVI central_JJ government_NN1 departments_NN2 ,_, and_CC local_JJ government_NN1 ,_, properly_RR funded_VVN ._. 
That_DD1 ,_, more_RRR or_CC less_RRR ,_, was_VBDZ the_AT conclusion_NN1 reached_VVN by_II the_AT 1985_MC report_NN1 of_IO the_AT Archbishop_NN1 of_IO Canterbury_NP1 's_GE Commission_NN1 on_II Urban_JJ Priority_NN1 Areas_NN2 ,_, Faith_NN1 in_II the_AT City_NN1 (_( 1985_MC )_) ,_, a_AT1 remarkable_JJ document_NN1 roundly_RR condemned_VVN by_II some_DD Conservatives_NN2 for_IF its_APPGE alleged_JJ implicit_JJ Marxism_NN1 ._. 
Focusing_VVG on_II economic_JJ decline_NN1 ,_, physical_JJ decay_NN1 ,_, and_CC social_JJ disintegration_NN1 as_CSA distinctive_JJ features_NN2 of_IO contemporary_JJ urban_JJ poverty_NN1 ,_, the_AT report_NN1 stressed_VVD the_AT Commission_NN1 's_GE view_NN1 quite_RG different_JJ from_II that_DD1 of_IO the_AT Government_NN1 ,_, the_AT Audit_NN1 Commission_NN1 ,_, or_CC even_RR the_AT CBI_NP1 that_DD1 '_VBZ the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 and_CC the_AT peripheral_JJ estates_NN2 are_VBR creatures_NN2 of_IO the_AT whole_JJ society_NN1 ,_, not_XX simply_RR of_IO their_APPGE inhabitants_NN2 '_GE (_( p._NNU 24_MC )_) ._. 
It_PPH1 dared_VVD to_TO question_VVI the_AT assumption_NN1 that_CST the_AT creation_NN1 of_IO wealth_NN1 ,_, at_II whatever_DDQV social_JJ cost_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ necessarily_RR the_AT first_MD priority_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 economic_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
Contemplating_JJ '_GE the_AT displaced_JJ fragments_NN2 of_IO inner_JJ city_NN1 decline_NN1 '_GE peripheral_JJ council_NN1 estates_NN2 it_PPH1 suggested_VVD that_DD1 wealth-creation_NN1 '_GE must_VM always_RR go_VVI hand_NN1 in_II hand_NN1 with_IW just_JJ distribution_NN1 ,_, offering_VVG ,_, thereby_RR ,_, an_AT1 alternative_JJ interpretation_NN1 of_IO '_GE partnership_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 53_MC )_) ._. 
It_PPH1 commented_VVD ,_, too_RR ,_, on_II the_AT environmental_JJ and_CC ecological_JJ consequences_NN2 ._. 
For_IF the_AT Archbishop_NN1 's_GE commissioners_NN2 ,_, partnership_NN1 needed_VVD to_TO mean_VVI not_XX just_RR a_AT1 link-up_NN1 between_II business_NN1 and_CC the_AT public_NN1 or_CC voluntary_JJ sectors_NN2 ,_, but_CCB a_AT1 conscious_JJ attempt_NN1 to_TO meet_VVI the_AT powerlessness_NN1 felt_VVD by_II the_AT '_GE people_NN in_II the_AT street_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 186_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT Archbishop_NN1 's_GE investigators_NN2 did_VDD not_XX search_VVI for_IF ,_, or_CC embrace_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 fashionable_JJ solution_NN1 ._. 
On_II the_AT contrary_NN1 ._. 
Their_APPGE main_JJ call_NN1 was_VBDZ for_IF a_AT1 return_NN1 to_II the_AT 1977_MC White_JJ Paper_NN1 ,_, namely_REX :_: '_GE a_AT1 specific_JJ commitment_NN1 on_II41 the_II42 part_II43 of_II44 central_JJ and_CC local_JJ government_NN1 to_II the_AT regeneration_NN1 of_IO the_AT inner_JJ areas_NN2 ..._... both_RR central_JJ and_CC local_JJ government_NN1 will_VM be_VBI judged_VVN by_II their_APPGE willingness_NN1 to_TO implement_VVI new_JJ priorities_NN2 ,_, to_TO make_VVI funds_NN2 available_JJ ,_, to_TO change_VVI policies_NN2 and_CC to_TO adapt_VVI their_APPGE organisations_NN2 ,_, (_( DoE_NP1 ,_, 1977_MC ,_, para_NN1 ._. 
25_MC )_) ._. 
Faith_NN1 in_II the_AT City_NN1 concluded_VVD bluntly_RR that_CST the_AT 1977_MC White_JJ Paper_NN1 's_VBZ '_GE policy_NN1 proposals_NN2 have_VH0 not_XX been_VBN tried_VVN and_CC found_VVN wanting_VVG ._. 
They_PPHS2 have_VH0 not_XX been_VBN tried_JJ '_GE (_( Archbishop_NN1 of_IO Canterbury_NP1 's_GE Commission_NN1 ,_, 1985_MC ,_, p._NN1 193_MC )_) ._. 
So_RG far_RR from_II treating_VVG the_AT problems_NN2 of_IO the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 as_CSA local_JJ difficulties_NN2 which_DDQ a_AT1 bit_NN1 of_IO capitalist_JJ enterprise_NN1 could_VM clear_VVI up_RP ,_, it_PPH1 regarded_VVD them_PPHO2 as_II evidence_NN1 of_IO systemic_JJ failure_NN1 ._. 
The_AT retreat_NN1 from_II the_AT principles_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1977_MC White_JJ Paper_NN1 occurred_VVD in_II the_AT context_NN1 of_IO the_AT economic_JJ crisis_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1970s_MC2 ,_, which_DDQ culminated_VVD in_II the_AT 1976_MC resort_NN1 to_II the_AT International_JJ Monetary_JJ fund_NN1 ._. 
The_AT scale_NN1 of_IO expenditure_NN1 on_II all_DB aspects_NN2 of_IO local_JJ government_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT greatly_RR increased_JJ proportion_NN1 of_IO total_JJ public_JJ expenditure_NN1 which_DDQ it_PPH1 represented_VVD ,_, meant_VVD that_CST ,_, when_CS the_AT crisis_NN1 came_VVD ,_, some_DD were_VBDR led_VVN to_TO blame_VVI local_JJ authorities_NN2 ,_, and_CC in_II the_AT cuts_NN2 that_CST followed_VVD inner_JJ cities_NN2 inevitably_RR suffered_VVD most_RGT acutely_RR ._. 
A_AT1 serious_JJ blow_NN1 ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, was_VBDZ also_RR dealt_VVN to_II the_AT reputation_NN1 of_IO the_AT Labour_JJ Party_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ controlled_VVD many_DA2 of_IO the_AT councils_NN2 with_IW the_AT greatest_JJT needs_NN2 and_CC which_DDQ made_VVD the_AT heaviest_JJT demands_NN2 on_II the_AT public_JJ purse_NN1 ,_, and_CC whose_DDQGE members_NN2 were_VBDR least_RGT apologetic_JJ about_II doing_VDG so_RR ._. 
When_CS Anthony_NP1 Crosland_NP1 declared_VVD that_CST the_AT '_GE party_NN1 is_VBZ over_RP ,_, he_PPHS1 can_VM not_XX have_VHI realized_VVN that_CST the_AT Government_NN1 's_GE cuts_NN2 presaged_VVD a_AT1 long_JJ period_NN1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT Labour_JJ Party_NN1 itself_PPX1 would_VM be_VBI seriously_RR threatened_VVN partly_RR because_II21 of_II22 its_APPGE association_NN1 with_IW supposedly_RR spendthrift_VV0 urban_JJ policies_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT early_JJ and_CC mid-1980s_NN2 a_AT1 handful_NN1 of_IO '_GE municipal_JJ socialist_NN1 '_GE Labour_JJ councils_NN2 (_( triumphantly_RR declared_JJ '_GE loony_NN1 '_GE by_II Norman_NP1 Tebbit_NP1 and_CC the_AT right-wing_JJ press_NN1 )_) were_VBDR used_VVN as_II a_AT1 symbol_NN1 of_IO the_AT party_NN1 's_GE alleged_JJ financial_JJ irresponsibility_NN1 ._. 
With_IW Labour_JJ welfarism_NN1 out_II21 of_II22 fashion_NN1 ,_, and_CC neo-liberalism_NN1 in_II vogue_NN1 ,_, the_AT scene_NN1 was_VBDZ set_VVN ,_, not_XX only_RR for_IF the_AT downgrading_NN1 of_IO local_JJ authority_NN1 power_NN1 (_( including_II the_AT outright_JJ abolition_NN1 of_IO the_AT Greater_NP1 London_NP1 Council_NN1 and_CC the_AT metropolitan_JJ authorities_NN2 which_DDQ ,_, though_CS actually_RR limited_VVN in_II their_APPGE spending_NN1 power_NN1 ,_, were_VBDR nevertheless_RR the_AT coordinators_NN2 and_CC vocal_JJ champions_NN2 of_IO many_DA2 inner_JJ urban_JJ schemes_NN2 )_) ,_, but_CCB also_RR for_IF the_AT injection_NN1 of_IO national_JJ party_NN1 dogma_NN1 into_II the_AT management_NN1 of_IO local_JJ affairs_NN2 ._. 
'_" This_DD1 Government_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 radical_JJ government_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 radical_JJ message_NN1 ..._... '_GE ,_, wrote_VVD Secretary_NN1 of_IO State_NN1 Nicholas_NP1 Ridley_NP1 (_( 1988_MC ,_, p._NN1 32_MC )_) ._. 
'_GE Conservatives_NN2 have_VH0 a_AT1 strong_JJ localist_NN1 tradition_NN1 ,_, but_CCB the_AT danger_NN1 of_IO too_RG much_DA1 localism_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST the_AT Party_NN1 's_GE voice_NN1 and_CC through_II the_AT Party_NN1 the_AT political_JJ interpretation_NN1 of_IO the_AT Government_NN1 's_GE voice_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX heard_VVN ._. 
'_" This_DD1 was_VBDZ one_PN1 '_GE problem_NN1 '_GE ,_, at_RR21 least_RR22 ,_, which_DDQ the_AT present_JJ administration_NN1 has_VHZ proved_VVN highly_RR successful_JJ at_II solving_NN1 ._. 
So_RR dramatic_JJ ,_, indeed_RR ,_, has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO privatization_NN1 and_CC contracting_VVG out_II21 of_II22 services_NN2 ,_, and_CC of_IO other_JJ local_JJ government_NN1 changes_NN2 ,_, that_CST a_AT1 reduction_NN1 of_IO over_RG a_AT1 third_MD in_II the_AT total_JJ number_NN1 of_IO local_JJ authority_NN1 employees_NN2 over_II the_AT next_MD five_MC years_NNT2 has_VHZ been_VBN predicted_VVN by_II one_MC1 senior_JJ official_NN1 (_( Davies_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC )_) ._. 
It_PPH1 remains_VVZ to_TO be_VBI seen_VVN whether_CSW the_AT restructuring_NN1 will_VM save_VVI money_NN1 ,_, or_CC merely_RR shift_VV0 essential_JJ expenditure_NN1 between_II agencies_NN2 ,_, or_CC simply_RR reduce_VV0 available_JJ services_NN2 ._. 
What_DDQ it_PPH1 will_VM not_XX do_VDI ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, is_VBZ tackle_NN1 the_AT inner-city_JJ problem_NN1 nor_CC indeed_RR is_VBZ it_PPH1 designed_VVN to_TO do_VDI so_RR ._. 
If_CS there_EX ever_RR was_VBDZ a_AT1 Thatcherite_JJ economic_JJ miracle_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ ,_, to_II an_AT1 alarmingly_RR divisive_JJ degree_NN1 ,_, passed_VVD the_AT urban_JJ poor_JJ by_II ._. 
Jobless_JJ growth_NN1 ,_, changes_NN2 in_II the_AT composition_NN1 of_IO the_AT workforce_NN1 ,_, increased_JJ '_GE flexibility_NN1 '_GE of_IO labour_NN1 's_GE terms_NN2 and_CC conditions_NN2 ,_, have_VH0 all_RR contributed_VVN to_II an_AT1 economic_JJ revival_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ had_VHN minimal_JJ benefits_NN2 where_CS these_DD2 are_VBR needed_VVN most_DAT ._. 
'_GE The_AT effect_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN to_TO reinforce_VVI the_AT concentration_NN1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 in_II traditional_JJ inner_JJ city_NN1 areas_NN2 '_GE ,_, the_AT Centre_NN1 for_IF Local_JJ Economic_JJ Strategies_NN2 (_( CLES_NP2 )_) reported_VVD in_II Local_NN1 Work_NN1 (_( 1988_MC )_) ,_, '_GE and_CC in_II the_AT regions_NN2 which_DDQ were_VBDR already_RR suffering_VVG the_AT worst_JJT unemployment_NN1 before_II 1979_MC ._. 
'_GE Yet_RR the_AT critical_JJ question_NN1 for_IF the_AT 1990s_MC2 and_CC the_AT twenty-first_MD century_NNT1 remains_VVZ unanswered_JJ :_: is_VBZ there_EX an_AT1 approach_NN1 through_II central_JJ government_NN1 intervention_NN1 ,_, decentralization_NN1 ,_, the_AT encouragement_NN1 of_IO participation_NN1 ,_, or_CC any_DD other_JJ method_NN1 which_DDQ avoids_VVZ the_AT insensitivities_NN2 of_IO bureaucratic_JJ welfarism_NN1 ,_, and_CC yet_RR produces_VVZ results_NN2 ?_? 
PROGRAMME_NN1 FOR_IF THE_AT 1990s_MC2 Responding_VVG to_II this_DD1 question_NN1 by_II asking_VVG new_JJ questions_NN2 as_RG much_DA1 as_CSA by_II offering_VVG solutions_NN2 is_VBZ the_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 book_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ ,_, indeed_RR ,_, a_RR31 great_RR32 deal_RR33 easier_JJR to_TO point_VVI out_RP the_AT irrelevance_NN1 of_IO much_DA1 of_IO what_DDQ is_VBZ happening_VVG at_II the_AT moment_NN1 than_CSN to_TO have_VHI confidence_NN1 in_II any_DD particular_JJ alternative_NN1 ._. 
Still_RR ,_, some_DD things_NN2 may_VM be_VBI said_VVN with_IW reasonable_JJ assurance_NN1 ._. 
Almost_RR everyone_PN1 agrees_VVZ ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, that_DD1 enterprise_NN1 zones_NN2 alone_RR are_VBR of_IO limited_JJ value_NN1 ,_, that_DD1 tax_NN1 incentives_NN2 are_VBR relatively_RR ineffective_JJ and_CC deregulation_NN1 is_VBZ no_AT solution_NN1 ._. 
Despite_II government_NN1 rhetoric_NN1 ,_, the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO such_DA measures_NN2 on_II people_NN rather_II21 than_II22 places_NN2 as_CSA several_DA2 authors_NN2 in_II this_DD1 volume_NN1 show_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN marginal_JJ ._. 
Contributors_NN2 also_RR agree_VV0 on_II another_DD1 point_NN1 :_: that_DD1 public_JJ expenditure_NN1 and_CC public_JJ services_NN2 based_VVN on_II principles_NN2 of_IO universalism_NN1 and_CC citizenship_NN1 for_IF all_DB are_VBR central_JJ to_II any_DD real_JJ programme_NN1 ._. 
The_AT chapters_NN2 in_II this_DD1 book_NN1 deliberately_RR provide_VV0 a_AT1 balance_NN1 between_II experts_NN2 with_IW direct_JJ political_JJ or_CC administrative_JJ experience_NN1 of_IO the_AT areas_NN2 they_PPHS2 describe_VV0 (_( such_DA as_II Nick_NP1 Raynsford_NP1 and_CC David_NP1 Mallen_NP1 )_) and_CC academic_JJ observers_NN2 ._. 
Several_DA2 contributors_NN2 have_VH0 both_RR political/_JJ administrative_JJ and_CC academic_JJ credentials_NN2 ._. 
The_AT original_JJ intention_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO provide_VVI a_AT1 critical_JJ accompaniment_NN1 to_II government_NN1 promises_NN2 of_IO action_NN1 on_II the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 made_VVN at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 Parliament_NN1 ._. 
Out_II21 of_II22 them_PPHO2 ,_, however_RR ,_, has_VHZ emerged_VVN the_AT kernel_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 view_NN1 of_IO the_AT future_NN1 ._. 
If_CS there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 consistent_JJ bias_NN1 in_II31 favour_II32 of_II33 public_JJ intervention_NN1 and_CC against_II inertia_NN1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ also_RR ,_, we_PPIS2 hope_VV0 ,_, little_JJ shirking_NN1 of_IO awkward_JJ issues_NN2 though_CS the_AT collection_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX claim_VVI to_TO be_VBI comprehensive_JJ ,_, and_CC there_EX are_VBR aspects_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 huge_JJ topic_NN1 that_CST are_VBR barely_RR touched_VVN ._. 
What_DDQ the_AT book_NN1 does_VDZ attempt_VVI to_TO do_VDI is_VBZ to_TO provide_VVI a_AT1 framework_NN1 of_IO problems_NN2 and_CC ideas_NN2 ,_, exploring_VVG major_JJ themes_NN2 ._. 
Some_DD chapters_NN2 look_VV0 at_II the_AT manifestations_NN2 of_IO urban_JJ breakdown-John_NP1 Benyon_NP1 and_CC John_NP1 Solomos_NP1 writing_NN1 about_II racial_JJ conflict_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 others_NN2 ,_, like_II Robert_NP1 Reiner_NP1 ,_, at_II the_AT evidence_NN1 on_II rising_VVG crime_NN1 rates_NN2 and_CC the_AT complex_JJ ethical_JJ dilemmas_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR often_RR presented_VVN as_CSA simple_JJ ._. 
Several_DA2 contributors_NN2 are_VBR concerned_JJ with_IW how_RRQ urban_JJ dwellers_NN2 actually_RR live_VV0 their_APPGE lives_NN2 :_: Peter_NP1 Townsend_NP1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, shows_VVZ the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO social_JJ polarization_NN1 upon_II health_NN1 and_CC well-being_NN1 by_II indicating_VVG differential_JJ rates_NN2 of_IO mortality_NN1 and_CC morbidity_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT widening_JJ gap_NN1 between_II the_AT experiences_NN2 of_IO rich_JJ and_CC poor_JJ ._. 
Others_NN2 look_VV0 at_II local_JJ government_NN1 and_CC central-local_JJ relations_NN2 in_II practice_NN1 ._. 
Susanne_NP1 MacGregor_NP1 points_VVZ to_II the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 growing_JJ climate_NN1 of_IO social_JJ Conservatism_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 climate_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ encouraged_VVN by_II aspects_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 policy_NN1 ._. 
John_NP1 Gibson_NP1 highlights_VVZ the_AT regressive_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO recent_JJ local_JJ government_NN1 financial_JJ reform_NN1 ,_, and_CC predicts_VVZ dire_JJ consequences_NN2 for_IF the_AT urban_JJ poor_JJ ._. 
The_AT chances_NN2 of_IO the_AT new_JJ system_NN1 of_IO local_JJ government_NN1 finance_NN1 surviving_VVG for_RR21 long_RR22 seem_VV0 slim_JJ ._. 
Particular_JJ services_NN2 are_VBR examined_VVN by_II two_MC writers_NN2 closely_RR involved_JJ with_IW implementation_NN1 :_: Nick_NP1 Raynsford_NP1 looks_VVZ it_PPH1 recent_JJ developments_NN2 in_II policies_NN2 on_II housing_NN1 ,_, and_CC David_NP1 Mallen_NP1 considers_VVZ how_RRQ education_NN1 might_VM effectively_RR be_VBI used_VVN as_II a_AT1 key_JJ instrument_NN1 of_IO social_JJ improvement_NN1 ._. 
Hilary_NP1 Land_NP1 examines_VVZ women_NN2 's_GE systematic_JJ loss_NN1 of_IO rights_NN2 and_CC claims_NN2 for_IF social_JJ protection_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE effect_NN1 on_II the_AT family_NN1 and_CC children_NN2 during_II the_AT 1980s_MC2 ._. 
She_PPHS1 demonstrates_VVZ that_CST policies_NN2 of_IO amelioration_NN1 will_VM do_VDI in_II more_DAR than_CSN touch_VV0 the_AT surface_NN1 unless_CS fundamental_JJ gender_NN1 inequalities_NN2 are_VBR addressed_VVN ._. 
A_AT1 consistent_JJ underlying_JJ theme_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST a_AT1 reliance_NN1 on_II market_NN1 forces_NN2 can_VM not_XX be_VBI the_AT answer_NN1 :_: in_II every_AT1 area_NN1 ,_, public_JJ action_NN1 is_VBZ urgently_RR needed_VVN ._. 
Alternative_JJ approaches_NN2 are_VBR reviewed_VVN by_II Franco_NP1 Bianchini_NP1 ,_, who_PNQS points_VVZ to_II the_AT potential_JJ role_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 adequately_RR funded_JJ arts_NN2 programme_NN1 in_II fostering_VVG civic_JJ pride_NN1 and_CC countering_VVG alienation_NN1 ,_, and_CC Doreen_NP1 Massey_NP1 who_PNQS emphasized_VVD the_AT need_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 combination_NN1 of_IO progressive_JJ national_JJ and_CC local_JJ economic_JJ strategies_NN2 ._. 
She_PPHS1 turns_VVZ the_AT Government_NN1 's_GE self-help_JJ approach_NN1 around_RP by_II arguing_VVG that_DD1 urban_JJ recovery_NN1 will_VM only_RR be_VBI achieved_VVN by_II empowering_VVG the_AT people_NN who_PNQS live_VV0 in_II cities_NN2 ._. 
Her_APPGE final_JJ essay_NN1 ,_, indeed_RR ,_, echoes_VVZ the_AT theme_NN1 of_IO the_AT whole_JJ book_NN1 :_: the_AT focus_NN1 must_VM be_VBI on_II democracy_NN1 and_CC on_II a_AT1 sensitivity_NN1 to_II local_JJ and_CC individual_JJ needs_NN2 and_CC aspirations_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT early_JJ post-war_JJ period_NN1 ,_, the_AT British_JJ welfare_NN1 state_NN1 was_VBDZ thought_VVN to_TO be_VBI the_AT envy_NN1 of_IO much_DA1 of_IO the_AT industrialized_JJ world_NN1 ._. 
Today_RT ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 cause_NN1 for_IF embarrassment_NN1 ,_, especially_RR in_II the_AT context_NN1 of_IO moves_NN2 towards_II European_JJ integration_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 reason_NN1 is_VBZ relative_JJ economic_JJ decline_NN1 ._. 
Another_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT failure_NN1 of_IO vision_NN1 of_IO successive_JJ governments_NN2 ,_, Labour_JJ and_CC Conservative_NN1 ,_, since_II 1951_MC ._. 
A_AT1 third_MD ,_, since_II 1979_MC ,_, has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 conscious_JJ (_( and_CC accelerating_JJ )_) ambition_NN1 to_TO limit_VVI public_JJ provision_NN1 ._. 
To_II a_AT1 large_JJ extent_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, fashionable_JJ doctrine_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT excuse_NN1 for_IF actual_JJ incompetence_NN1 and_CC neglect_NN1 ._. 
There_EX has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 consistent_JJ failure_NN1 to_TO direct_VVI the_AT fruits_NN2 of_IO growth_NN1 to_II the_AT areas_NN2 ,_, industries_NN2 ,_, and_CC groups_NN2 that_CST need_VV0 it_PPH1 most_RRT ._. 
Outside_II London_NP1 and_CC the_AT South-East_ND1 ,_, mass_JJ unemployment_NN1 persists_VVZ even_RR among_II '_GE prime-age_JJ males_NN2 '_GE ,_, and_CC much_DA1 of_IO the_AT increase_NN1 in_II employment_NN1 has_VHZ taken_VVN the_AT form_NN1 of_IO low-paid_NN1 ,_, so-called_JJ '_GE part-time_JJ '_GE work_NN1 usually_RR undertaken_VVN by_II women_NN2 in_II31 addition_II32 to_II33 their_APPGE child-rearing_NN1 and_CC '_GE community_NN1 care_NN1 '_GE activities_NN2 ._. 
Contempt_NN1 for_IF the_AT public_JJ sector_NN1 has_VHZ led_VVN to_II a_AT1 deterioration_NN1 of_IO the_AT infrastructure_NN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 visible_JJ collapse_NN1 of_IO key_JJ public_JJ services_NN2 ._. 
Meanwhile_RR ,_, as_CSA Layard_NP1 and_CC Nickell_NP1 (_( 1989_MC )_) have_VH0 shown_VVN ,_, Britain_NP1 's_GE recent_JJ record_NN1 on_II education_NN1 and_CC training_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN notably_RR inadequate_JJ ._. 
The_AT pragmatic_JJ short-term_JJ remedies_NN2 suggested_VVN by_II W._NP1 J._NP1 Wilson_NP1 (_( 1987_MC )_) in_II his_APPGE study_NN1 of_IO inner_JJ cities_NN2 and_CC public_JJ policy_NN1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 could_VM serve_VVI as_CSA one_MC1 starting-point_NN1 for_IF discussion_NN1 of_IO policy_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
Wilson_NP1 warns_VVZ of_IO the_AT long-term_JJ effects_NN2 of_IO discriminatory_JJ policies_NN2 ._. 
'_GE Long_JJ periods_NN2 of_IO racial_JJ oppression_NN1 '_GE ,_, he_PPHS1 writes_VVZ ,_, '_" can_VM result_VVI in_II a_AT1 system_NN1 of_IO inequality_NN1 that_CST may_VM persist_VVI for_IF indefinite_JJ periods_NN2 of_IO time_NNT1 even_RR after_II racial_JJ barriers_NN2 are_VBR removed_JJ '_GE (_( p._NNU 146_MC )_) ._. 
Bad_JJ policies_NN2 in_II the_AT past_NN1 may_VM continue_VVI to_TO cause_VVI problems_NN2 ,_, long_RR after_CS they_PPHS2 have_VH0 been_VBN replaced_VVN by_II good_JJ ones_NN2 ._. 
Similar_JJ problems_NN2 follow_VV0 from_II centuries_NNT2 of_IO unequal_JJ treatment_NN1 of_IO men_NN2 and_CC women_NN2 ._. 
Conversely_RR ,_, positive_JJ policies_NN2 should_VM not_XX be_VBI abandoned_VVN because_CS they_PPHS2 do_VD0 not_XX show_VVI immediate_JJ miraculous_JJ results_NN2 ._. 
What_DDQ the_AT Right_NN1 regards_VVZ as_CSA wasteful_JJ '_GE throwing_VVG money_NN1 at_II the_AT problem_NN1 '_GE in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, income_NN1 support_NN1 to_II the_AT unwaged_JJ ,_, non-means-tested_JJ family_NN1 and_CC child_NN1 benefits_NN2 ,_, may_VM actually_RR be_VBI a_AT1 prudent_JJ investment_NN1 in_II the_AT future_NN1 ,_, with_IW social_JJ and_CC economic_JJ dividends_NN2 ._. 
Wilson_NP1 's_GE conclusion_NN1 in_II31 favour_II32 of_II33 universal_JJ programmes_NN2 is_VBZ one_PN1 that_CST needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI reasserted_VVN for_IF many_DA2 areas_NN2 of_IO policy_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
Here_RL ,_, too_RR ,_, Richard_NP1 Titmuss_NP1 's_GE exposure_NN1 of_IO the_AT inadequacies_NN2 of_IO the_AT '_GE residual_JJ '_GE model_NN1 of_IO the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 bears_NN2 re-examination_NN1 :_: so_RR does_VDZ his_APPGE healthy_JJ disrespect_NN1 for_IF econometric_JJ models_NN2 as_II a_AT1 foundation_NN1 for_IF social_JJ policy_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX just_RR that_CST a_AT1 '_GE market_NN1 '_GE approach_NN1 to_II the_AT administration_NN1 of_IO services_NN2 dehumanizes_VVZ people_NN and_CC makes_VVZ doubtful_JJ assumptions_NN2 about_II the_AT way_NN1 organizations_NN2 actually_RR work_VV0 ._. 
It_PPH1 also_RR ignores_VVZ the_AT complexity_NN1 and_CC variability_NN1 of_IO social_JJ relations_NN2 and_CC human_JJ needs_NN2 ,_, '_GE chopping_NN1 people_NN up_RP '_GE into_II consumers_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 ,_, clients_NN2 of_IO that_DD1 ,_, institutionalized_VVD service_NN1 ._. 
Thus_RR ,_, Titmuss_NP1 ridiculed_VVD the_AT contortions_NN2 of_IO some_DD economists_NN2 in_II trying_VVG to_TO base_VVI models_NN2 on_II unreal_JJ statistical_JJ categories_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 that_DD1 of_IO the_AT ubiquitous_58 '_GE average_JJ family_NN1 '_GE (_( Abel-Smith_NP1 and_CC Titmuss_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC ,_, p._NN1 9_MC )_) ._. 
In_II31 spite_II32 of_II33 their_APPGE claims_NN2 ,_, '_GE targeted_JJ '_GE programmes_NN2 frequently_RR miss_VV0 some_DD of_IO their_APPGE most_RGT needy_JJ would-be_JJ clients_NN2 ,_, and_CC stigmatize_VV0 those_DD2 they_PPHS2 do_VD0 succeed_VVI in_II reaching_VVG :_: selectivist_NN1 policies_NN2 deepen_VV0 social_JJ divisions_NN2 rather_CS21 than_CS22 heal_VVI them_PPHO2 ._. 
Such_DA programmes_NN2 treat_VV0 people_NN as_CSA consumers_NN2 in_II a_AT1 supermarket_NN1 ,_, an_AT1 approach_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT hallmark_NN1 of_IO Thatcherite_JJ social_JJ policy_NN1 best_RRT epitomized_VVN in_II their_APPGE poll_NN1 tax_NN1 legislation_NN1 ._. 
Another_DD1 ,_, more_RGR fundamental_JJ lack_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT absence_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 view_NN1 of_IO the_AT recipients_NN2 of_IO services_NN2 as_CSA social_JJ participants_NN2 ._. 
An_AT1 obsession_NN1 with_IW cutting_VVG costs_NN2 and_CC with_IW theories_NN2 of_IO self-help_NN1 has_VHZ downgraded_VVN public_JJ services_NN2 and_CC re-evoked_VVN images_NN2 of_IO the_AT poor_JJ law_NN1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ no_AT simple_JJ way_NN1 to_TO turn_VVI local_JJ administration_NN1 which_DDQ increasingly_RR means_VVZ delegated_JJ central_JJ administration_NN1 into_II what_DDQ John_NP1 Stewart_NP1 and_CC Gerry_NP1 Stoker_NP1 (_( 1988_MC )_) call_NN1 '_GE community_NN1 government_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Participation_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 easier_JJR word_NN1 to_TO use_VVI than_CSN to_TO implement_VVI ,_, as_CSA was_VBDZ discovered_VVN by_II the_AT would-be_JJ implementers_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1969_MC Skeffington_NP1 Report_NN1 ,_, and_CC by_II many_DA2 idealistic_JJ councillors_NN2 in_II the_AT 1980s_MC2 ._. 
But_CCB to_TO say_VVI that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ hard_RR does_VDZ not_XX make_VVI it_PPH1 less_RGR desirable_JJ ,_, neither_DD1 does_VDZ it_PPH1 mean_VVI that_CST governments_NN2 should_VM abandon_VVI the_AT attempt_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ clear_JJ is_VBZ that_DD1 civic_JJ or_CC community_NN1 pride_NN1 essential_JJ if_CS urban_JJ decline_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX to_TO turn_VVI into_II urban_JJ collapse_NN1 and_CC the_AT view_NN1 of_IO local_JJ government_NN1 as_II an_AT1 honourable_JJ profession_NN1 ,_, can_VM not_XX survive_VVI unless_CS the_AT public_JJ service_NN1 which_DDQ local_JJ authorities_NN2 provide_VV0 rests_NN2 on_II principles_NN2 of_IO local_JJ democracy_NN1 ._. 
Simply_RR handing_VVG over_RP powers_NN2 to_II local_JJ government_NN1 (_( or_CC stopping_VVG the_AT removal_NN1 of_IO them_PPHO2 )_) is_VBZ not_XX enough_RR ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT sine_NN131 qua_NN132 non_NN133 of_IO progress_NN1 towards_II a_AT1 more_RGR sensitive_JJ management_NN1 of_IO urban_JJ affairs_NN2 ._. 
Decentralization_NN1 and_CC local_JJ democracy_NN1 should_VM be_VBI the_AT slogans_NN2 of_IO all_DB who_PNQS are_VBR concerned_JJ about_II the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 ._. 
CONCLUSION_NN1 The_AT essays_NN2 in_II this_DD1 book_NN1 do_VD0 not_XX present_VVI a_AT1 monolithic_JJ view_NN1 ,_, and_CC they_PPHS2 reflect_VV0 widely_RR differing_JJ perspectives_NN2 ._. 
However_RR ,_, they_PPHS2 share_VV0 common_JJ perceptions_NN2 ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 already_RR indicated_VVN ._. 
Though_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR neither_RR statist_NN1 nor_CC paternalist_NN1 ,_, the_AT authors_NN2 see_VV0 a_AT1 larger_JJR role_NN1 for_IF democratic_JJ central_JJ and_CC local_JJ government_NN1 in_II the_AT reduction_NN1 of_IO urban_JJ poverty_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 do_VD0 not_XX as_CSA this_DD1 administration_NN1 ,_, despite_II its_APPGE early_JJ assurances_NN2 ,_, appears_VVZ to_TO do_VDI regard_NN1 urban_JJ life_NN1 as_CSA marginal_JJ to_II the_AT issue_NN1 of_IO economic_JJ progress_NN1 ._. 
On_II the_AT contrary_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 place_VV0 the_AT crisis_NN1 in_II the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 at_II the_AT centre_NN1 of_IO any_DD national_JJ programme_NN1 of_IO critical_JJ importance_NN1 to_II this_DD1 country_NN1 's_GE future_JJ social_JJ ,_, economic_JJ ,_, and_CC constitutional_JJ well-being_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 see_VV0 urban_JJ decay_NN1 not_XX as_II a_AT1 peripheral_JJ manifestation_NN1 nor_CC as_II a_AT1 growing_JJ pain_NN1 ,_, but_CCB as_II a_AT1 chronic_JJ condition_NN1 of_IO social_JJ polarization_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ becoming_VVG firmly_RR entrenched_VVN in_II British_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
The_AT authors_NN2 are_VBR unconvinced_JJ that_CST a_AT1 reliance_NN1 on_II business_NN1 ,_, left_VVN to_II its_APPGE own_DA devices_NN2 or_CC even_RR pump-primed_JJ ,_, is_VBZ sufficient_JJ ,_, without_IW full-scale_JJ and_CC direct_JJ attention_NN1 to_II the_AT needs_NN2 of_IO all_DB residents_NN2 ,_, those_DD2 in_II both_DB2 the_AT paid_JJ and_CC the_AT unpaid_JJ workforce_NN1 ,_, and_CC their_APPGE dependants_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT ancient_JJ world_NN1 ,_, during_II the_AT Middle_JJ Ages_NN2 and_CC Renaissance_NN1 ,_, even_RR in_II the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, the_AT word_NN1 '_GE city_NN1 '_GE was_VBDZ frequently_RR associated_VVN with_IW wealth_NN1 ,_, success_NN1 ,_, culture_NN1 ,_, and_CC opportunity_NN1 ._. 
The_AT word_NN1 '_GE civilization_NN1 '_GE itself_PPX1 and_CC the_AT word_NN1 '_GE citizen_NN1 '_GE derives_VVZ from_II it_PPH1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 bitter_JJ indictment_NN1 of_IO our_APPGE own_DA time_NNT1 that_CST the_AT phrase_NN1 '_GE inner_JJ city_NN1 '_GE should_VM today_RT universally_RR conjure_VVI up_RP images_NN2 of_IO disorder_NN1 ,_, poverty_NN1 ,_, fear_VV0 ,_, vandalism_NN1 ,_, and_CC alienation_NN1 ._. 
If_CS capitalism_NN1 can_VM be_VBI credited_VVN with_IW historic_JJ levels_NN2 of_IO prosperity_NN1 for_IF many_DA2 ,_, the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT cockroach_NN1 at_II its_APPGE heart_NN1 ._. 
Homelessness_NN1 ,_, drug_NN1 addiction_NN1 ,_, beggars_VVZ in_II the_AT streets_NN2 give_VV0 the_AT lie_NN1 to_II the_AT assumption_NN1 that_CST the_AT standardized_JJ values_NN2 and_CC comforts_NN2 of_IO the_AT suburbs_NN2 are_VBR universally_RR available_JJ ._. 
This_DD1 book_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX pretend_VVI to_TO offer_VVI an_AT1 answer_NN1 ._. 
Its_APPGE authors_NN2 seek_VV0 ,_, rather_RR ,_, by_II challenging_VVG old_JJ approaches_NN2 and_CC re-analysing_VVG the_AT problem_NN1 ,_, both_RR to_TO assert_VVI its_APPGE importance_NN1 and_CC to_TO suggest_VVI new_JJ ways_NN2 of_IO tackling_VVG it_PPH1 ._. 
'_GE Race_NN1 ,_, Injustice_NN1 ,_, and_CC Disorder_NN1 John_NP1 Benyon_NP1 and_CC John_NP1 Solomos_NP1 INTRODUCTION_NN1 Civil_JJ disorder_NN1 and_CC unrest_NN1 were_VBDR recurring_JJ phenomena_NN2 in_II many_DA2 British_JJ inner-city_JJ areas_NN2 during_II the_AT 1980s_MC2 ._. 
In_II 1980_MC ,_, 1981_MC ,_, and_CC 1985_MC major_JJ riots_NN2 in_II Bristol_NP1 ,_, London_NP1 ,_, Liverpool_NP1 ,_, and_CC Birmingham_NP1 commanded_VVD the_AT headlines_NN2 and_CC became_VVD a_AT1 key_JJ theme_NN1 in_II policy_NN1 debates_NN2 about_II the_AT future_NN1 of_IO the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ worth_II stressing_VVG that_CST in_II each_DD1 year_NNT1 since_II 1980_MC there_EX have_VH0 been_VBN examples_NN2 of_IO serious_JJ street_NN1 disorder_NN1 (_( Benyon_NP1 ,_, 1984_MC ;_; Benyon_NP1 and_CC Solomos_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
These_DD2 outbreaks_NN2 of_IO disorder_NN1 have_VH0 presented_VVN a_AT1 major_JJ challenge_NN1 to_II the_AT Thatcher_NP1 Government_NN1 's_GE image_NN1 as_II the_AT guardian_NN1 of_IO public_JJ order_NN1 ._. 
More_RGR importantly_RR ,_, however_RR ,_, they_PPHS2 have_VH0 given_VVN added_JJ urgency_NN1 to_II the_AT long-running_JJ debate_NN1 about_II the_AT future_NN1 of_IO Britain_NP1 's_GE inner_JJ cities_NN2 ._. 
The_AT sight_NN1 of_IO violent_JJ confrontations_NN2 on_II the_AT streets_NN2 of_IO major_JJ cities_NN2 helped_VVD to_TO stimulate_VVI yet_RR further_RRR the_AT acrimonious_JJ political_JJ debate_NN1 about_II how_RRQ to_TO regenerate_VVI depressed_JJ inner-city_JJ localities_NN2 (_( Robson_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC )_) ._. 
This_DD1 chapter_NN1 explores_VVZ the_AT political_JJ and_CC policy_NN1 debates_NN2 surrounding_VVG the_AT major_JJ outbreaks_NN2 of_IO urban_JJ unrest_NN1 during_II 19801_MC and_CC 1985_MC ,_, and_CC the_AT ever-present_JJ threat_NN1 of_IO more_RGR violent_JJ disorder_NN1 ._. 
After_II providing_VVG a_AT1 brief_JJ overview_NN1 of_IO the_AT chronology_NN1 of_IO urban_JJ unrest_NN1 during_II the_AT 1980s_MC2 ,_, the_AT chapter_NN1 concentrates_VVZ on_II two_MC main_JJ themes_NN2 ._. 
First_MD ,_, the_AT political_JJ debates_NN2 about_II the_AT origins_NN2 and_CC causes_NN2 of_IO the_AT unrest_NN1 are_VBR assessed_VVN ,_, and_CC second_NNT1 ,_, the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO the_AT unrest_NN1 on_II the_AT policy_NN1 agenda_NN1 is_VBZ examined_VVN ._. 
This_DD1 entails_VVZ a_AT1 review_NN1 of_IO the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO the_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 ,_, and_CC other_JJ important_JJ policy_NN1 documents_NN2 ,_, on_II the_AT agenda_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 the_AT Government_NN1 and_CC other_JJ political_JJ institutions_NN2 ._. 
Finally_RR ,_, the_AT chapter_NN1 concludes_VVZ by_II providing_VVG some_DD reflections_NN2 about_II the_AT prospects_NN2 during_II the_AT decade_NNT1 ahead_RL ._. 
THE_AT CONTEXT_NN1 OF_IO URBAN_JJ UNREST_NN1 :_: 1981_MC AND_CC 1985_MC The_AT first_MD notable_JJ instance_NN1 of_IO urban_JJ unrest_NN1 during_II the_AT 1980s_MC2 took_VVD place_NN1 in_II the_AT St_NP1 Paul_NP1 's_GE district_NN1 of_IO Bristol_NP1 on_II 2_MC April_NPM1 1980_MC ._. 
The_AT immediate_JJ reaction_NN1 to_II this_DD1 event_NN1 was_VBDZ one_MC1 of_IO shock_NN1 and_CC surprise_NN1 ,_, with_IW public_JJ and_CC media_NN attention_NN1 focusing_VVG particularly_RR on_II the_AT interplay_NN1 between_II racial_JJ and_CC social_JJ deprivation_NN1 in_II the_AT St_NP1 Paul_NP1 's_GE area_NN1 (_( Joshua_NP1 and_CC Wallace_NP1 ,_, 1983_MC )_) ._. 
A_AT1 year_NNT1 later_RRR further_VV0 serious_JJ violence_NN1 occurred_VVD during_II the_AT weekend_NNT1 of_IO 1012_MC April_NPM1 1981_MC in_II the_AT Brixton_NP1 area_NN1 of_IO south_ND1 London_NP1 ;_; this_DD1 resulted_VVD in_II many_DA2 injuries_NN2 and_CC widespread_JJ damage_NN1 ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 attracted_VVD enormous_JJ media_NN attention_NN1 ._. 
Further_JJR disturbances_NN2 took_VVD place_NN1 in_II many_DA2 parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 in_II July_NPM1 1981_MC ._. 
On_II Friday_NPD1 ,_, 3_MC July_NPM1 a_AT1 pitched_JJ battle_NN1 occurred_VVD in_II Southall_NP1 between_II hundreds_NNO2 of_IO skinheads_NN2 and_CC local_JJ Asian_JJ people_NN ,_, and_CC the_AT police_NN2 quickly_RR became_VVD embroiled_JJ ._. 
On_II the_AT same_DA night_NNT1 in_II the_AT Liverpool_NP1 8_MC district_NN1 of_IO Merseyside_NP1 ,_, an_AT1 apparently_RR minor_JJ incident_NN1 sparked_VVD off_RP rioting_NN1 which_DDQ lasted_VVD until_II Monday_NPD1 ,_, 6_MC July_NPM1 ._. 
The_AT disorder_NN1 in_II Liverpool_NP1 8_MC was_VBDZ particularly_RR violent_JJ ._. 
For_IF the_AT first_MD time_NNT1 ever_RR in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, CS_NP2 gas_NN1 was_VBDZ fired_VVN at_II rioters_NN2 by_II the_AT police_NN2 ._. 
Looting_NN1 and_CC arson_NN1 were_VBDR widespread_JJ ,_, and_CC the_AT damage_NN1 was_VBDZ estimated_VVN at_II some_DD 10_MC million_NNO ._. 
On_II the_AT night_NNT1 of_IO 78_MC July_NPM1 1981_MC ,_, disorder_NN1 occurred_VVD in_II Moss_NP1 Side_NN1 ,_, Manchester_NP1 ._. 
During_II the_AT following_JJ week_NNT1 disturbances_NN2 were_VBDR reported_VVN in_II places_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 Handsworth_NP1 in_II Birmingham_NP1 ,_, Sheffield_NP1 ,_, Nottingham_NP1 ,_, Hull_NP1 ,_, Slough_NP1 ,_, Leeds_NP1 ,_, Bradford_NP1 ,_, Leicester_NP1 ,_, Derby_NP1 ,_, High_NP1 Wycombe_NP1 ,_, and_CC Cirencester_NP1 ._. 
Disorder_NN1 again_RT erupted_VVN in_II Brixton_NP1 on_II 15_MC July_NPM1 1981_MC ._. 
At_II 2.00_MC a.m._RA eleven_MC houses_NN2 in_II Railton_NP1 Road_NNL1 were_VBDR raided_VVN by_II 176_MC police-officers_NN2 ,_, with_IW a_AT1 further_JJR 391_MC held_VVD in_II reserve_NN1 ._. 
The_AT police_NN2 had_VHD warrants_NN2 to_TO look_VVI for_IF evidence_NN1 of_IO unlawful_JJ drinking_NN1 and_CC to_TO search_VVI five_MC houses_NN2 for_IF petrol_NN1 bombs_NN2 ,_, although_CS no_AT evidence_NN1 of_IO either_DD1 was_VBDZ found_VVN ._. 
During_II the_AT operation_NN1 the_AT houses_NN2 sustained_VVD very_RG considerable_JJ damage_NN1 windows_NN2 ,_, sinks_NN2 ,_, toilets_NN2 ,_, floorboards_NN2 ,_, furniture_NN1 ,_, televisions_NN2 ,_, and_CC personal_JJ possessions_NN2 were_VBDR smashed_VVN ._. 
The_AT resultant_JJ outcry_NN1 led_VVN to_II an_AT1 internal_JJ inquiry_NN1 which_DDQ exonerated_VVD those_DD2 involved_VVN and_CC stated_VVN that_CST the_AT police_NN2 officers_NN2 had_VHD been_VBN issued_VVN with_IW sledgehammers_NN2 and_CC crowbars_NN2 '_GE to_TO effect_VVI speedy_JJ entry_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Compensation_NN1 of_IO 8,500_MC for_IF structural_JJ damage_NN1 ,_, and_CC further_RRR sums_VVZ for_IF damage_NN1 to_II personal_JJ property_NN1 ,_, were_VBDR paid_VVN by_II the_AT Metropolitan_JJ Police_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 raid_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT resultant_JJ violence_NN1 on_II the_AT streets_NN2 of_IO Brixton_NP1 ,_, convinced_VVD many_DA2 people_NN that_CST the_AT way_NN1 policing_NN1 is_VBZ carried_VVN out_RP is_VBZ a_AT1 vital_JJ factor_NN1 in_II the_AT context_NN1 of_IO urban_JJ unrest_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 inquiry_NN1 into_II the_AT Railton_NP1 Road_NNL1 raid_NN1 by_II the_AT Police_NN2 Complaints_NN2 Board_VV0 discovered_JJ '_GE serious_JJ lapses_NN2 from_II professional_JJ standards_NN2 '_GE and_CC an_AT1 '_GE institutional_JJ disregard_NN1 for_IF the_AT niceties_NN2 of_IO the_AT law_NN1 '_GE (_( Benyon_NP1 and_CC Solomos_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
Disorder_NN1 was_VBDZ again_RT evident_JJ in_II 1982_MC and_CC in_II subsequent_JJ years_NNT2 ,_, although_CS on_II a_AT1 reduced_JJ scale_NN1 (_( Benyon_NP1 and_CC Solomos_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT attention_NN1 of_IO the_AT news_NN1 media_NN was_VBDZ firmly_RR focused_VVN on_II the_AT Falklands_NP1 ,_, and_CC so_RG few_DA2 accounts_NN2 of_IO disturbances_NN2 in_II British_JJ cities_NN2 were_VBDR reported_VVN ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ clear_JJ ,_, though_CS ,_, that_DD1 urban_JJ unrest_NN1 continued_VVD to_TO occur_VVI in_II parts_NN2 of_IO London_NP1 and_CC Liverpool_NP1 ,_, and_CC similar_JJ disorder_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO have_VHI taken_VVN place_NN1 in_II 1983_MC ._. 
The_AT following_JJ year_NNT1 ,_, the_AT Metropolitan_JJ Police_NN2 Commissioner_NN1 reported_VVD that_CST during_II 1984_MC there_EX were_VBDR many_DA2 mini-riots_NN2 which_DDQ had_VHD the_AT potential_JJ to_TO escalate_VVI to_II Brixton_NP1 1981_MC proportions_NN2 ,_, and_CC he_PPHS1 added_VVD :_: '_GE London_NP1 is_VBZ nowadays_RT a_AT1 very_RG volatile_JJ city_NN1 ._. 
'_" A_ZZ1 MORI_NP1 opinion_NN1 poll_NN1 in_II February_NPM1 1985_MC reported_VVD that_CST 64_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 of_IO those_DD2 surveyed_VVN expected_VVN further_RRR riots_VVZ to_TO occur_VVI in_II British_JJ cities_NN2 ,_, and_CC seven_MC months_NNT2 later_RRR their_APPGE fears_NN2 were_VBDR justified_VVN ._. 
In_II September_NPM1 and_CC October_NPM1 1985_MC serious_JJ urban_JJ unrest_NN1 again_RT became_VVD the_AT focus_NN1 of_IO popular_JJ attention_NN1 ._. 
The_AT first_MD major_JJ eruption_NN1 occurred_VVD on_II Monday_NPD1 ,_, 9_MC September_NPM1 1985_MC in_II the_AT Lozells_NP1 Road_NNL1 area_NN1 of_IO Handsworth_NP1 ,_, Birmingham_NP1 ._. 
The_AT riot_NN1 resulted_VVN in_II the_AT deaths_NN2 of_IO two_MC Asian_JJ men_NN2 ,_, Kassamali_NP1 and_CC Amirali_NP1 Moledina_NP1 ,_, who_PNQS suffered_VVD asphyxiation_NN1 in_II their_APPGE burning_JJ post_NN1 office_NN1 ._. 
Another_DD1 122_MC people_NN ,_, mainly_RR police_NN2 ,_, were_VBDR reported_VVN injured_JJ and_CC the_AT value_NN1 of_IO damaged_JJ property_NN1 was_VBDZ put_VVN at_II 7.5_MC million_NNO ._. 
Further_JJR rioting_NN1 occurred_VVD the_AT next_MD day_NNT1 when_RRQ Douglas_NP1 Hurd_NP1 ,_, the_AT Home_NN1 Secretary_NN1 ,_, visited_VVD the_AT area_NN1 ._. 
Other_JJ disturbances_NN2 ,_, widely_RR regarded_VVN as_II '_GE copycat_NN1 '_GE ,_, were_VBDR reported_VVN elsewhere_RL in_II the_AT West_NP1 Midlands_NP2 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 in_II Moseley_NP1 ,_, Wolverhampton_NP1 ,_, and_CC Coventry_NP1 ,_, and_CC in_II the_AT St_NP1 Paul_NP1 's_GE district_NN1 of_IO Bristol_NP1 ._. 
The_AT Handsworth/Soho/Lozells_FU area_NN1 ,_, with_IW a_AT1 population_NN1 of_IO 56,300_MC ,_, is_VBZ regarded_VVN by_II Birmingham_NP1 City_NN1 Council_NN1 as_II the_AT most_RGT deprived_JJ district_NN1 in_II the_AT city_NN1 ._. 
Unemployment_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 major_JJ affliction_NN1 ,_, and_CC at_II the_AT time_NNT1 of_IO the_AT riots_NN2 36_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 of_IO the_AT workforce_NN1 in_II Handsworth_NP1 was_VBDZ out_II21 of_II22 work_NN1 ,_, while_CS the_AT figure_NN1 for_IF people_NN under_RG 24_MC years_NNT2 was_VBDZ 50_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ an_AT1 area_NN1 in_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 was_VBDZ claimed_VVN that_CST reasonably_RR good_JJ relations_NN2 existed_VVD between_II young_JJ blacks_NN2 and_CC the_AT police_NN2 ,_, as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO the_AT practice_NN1 of_IO community_NN1 policing_NN1 introduced_VVN in_II the_AT late_JJ 1970s_MC2 ._. 
However_RR ,_, at_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO 1981_MC a_AT1 new_JJ superintendent_NN1 instituted_VVD changes_NN2 which_DDQ included_VVD moving_VVG a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO the_AT area_NN1 's_GE community_NN1 police-officers_NN2 to_II other_JJ duties_NN2 and_CC clamping_VVG down_RP on_II the_AT activities_NN2 by_II local_JJ youths_NN2 which_DDQ had_VHD previously_RR been_VBN tolerated_VVN ._. 
These_DD2 changes_NN2 resulted_VVN in_II an_AT1 increase_NN1 in_II tension_NN1 between_II youths_NN2 and_CC the_AT police_NN2 ._. 
In_II July_NPM1 1985_MC two_MC serious_JJ disturbances_NN2 occurred_VVD in_II Handsworth_NP1 ,_, but_CCB both_RR were_VBDR played_VVN down_RP and_CC went_VVN unreported_JJ in_II the_AT media_NN ._. 
The_AT context_NN1 within_II which_DDQ the_AT eruption_NN1 on_II 9_MC September_NPM1 occurred_VVD was_VBDZ thus_RR one_MC1 of_IO deteriorating_JJ relations_NN2 between_II young_JJ people_NN ,_, especially_RR blacks_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT police_NN2 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 one_MC1 of_IO widespread_JJ unemployment_NN1 and_CC social_JJ disadvantage_NN1 ._. 
The_AT tinder_NN1 merely_RR required_VVN a_AT1 spark_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ was_VBDZ provided_VVN when_CS a_AT1 black_JJ youth_NN1 became_VVD involved_JJ in_II an_AT1 altercation_NN1 with_IW an_AT1 officer_NN1 over_II a_AT1 parking_NN1 ticket_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ alleged_VVN that_CST during_II the_AT incident_NN1 ,_, at_II which_DDQ more_DAR police_NN2 arrived_VVD ,_, a_AT1 black_JJ woman_NN1 was_VBDZ assaulted_VVN ._. 
Three_MC hours_NNT2 later_RRR some_DD forty-five_MC buildings_NN2 in_II Lozells_NP1 Road_NNL1 were_VBDR ablaze_JJ ._. 
Brixton_NP1 was_VBDZ the_AT scene_NN1 of_IO the_AT next_MD outbreak_NN1 of_IO violent_JJ disorder_NN1 ,_, during_II the_AT weekend_NNT1 289_MC September_NPM1 1985._MC 724_MC major_JJ crimes_NN2 were_VBDR reported_VVN ,_, 43_MC members_NN2 of_IO the_AT public_NN1 and_CC 10_MC police-officers_NN2 were_VBDR injured_VVN ,_, and_CC 230_MC arrests_NN2 were_VBDR made_VVN ._. 
As_CSA in_II Handsworth_NP1 ,_, the_AT event_NN1 which_DDQ led_VVD to_II the_AT rioting_NN1 involved_VVD police-officers_NN2 and_CC a_AT1 black_JJ person_NN1 ._. 
At_II 7.00_MC a.m._RA on_II 28_MC September_NPM1 armed_JJ police_NN2 entered_VVD Mrs_NNB Cherry_NP1 Groce_NP1 's_GE house_NN1 in_II Normandy_NP1 Road_NNL1 ,_, Brixton_NP1 ,_, looking_VVG for_IF her_APPGE son_NN1 ._. 
Two_MC shots_NN2 were_VBDR fired_VVN by_II an_AT1 officer_NN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 bullet_NN1 damaged_VVD Mrs_NNB Groce_NP1 's_GE spine_NN1 causing_VVG permanent_JJ paralysis_NN1 ._. 
At_II 6.00_MC p.m._RA the_AT local_JJ police_NN2 station_NN1 was_VBDZ attacked_VVN with_IW petrol_NN1 bombs_NN2 ,_, and_CC during_II the_AT next_MD eight_MC hours_NNT2 large_JJ numbers_NN2 of_IO people_NN ,_, both_RR black_JJ and_CC white_JJ ,_, took_VVD part_NN1 in_II burning_VVG and_CC looting_NN1 which_DDQ caused_VVD damage_NN1 estimated_VVN at_II 3_MC million_NNO ._. 
During_II the_AT riot_NN1 a_AT1 freelance_NN1 photographer_NN1 sustained_JJ injuries_NN2 from_II which_DDQ he_PPHS1 died_VVD three_MC weeks_NNT2 later_RRR ._. 
Two_MC days_NNT2 after_CS Mrs_NNB Groce_NP1 was_VBDZ shot_VVN ,_, rioting_NN1 occurred_VVD in_II Toxteth_NP1 (_( Liverpool_NP1 8_MC )_) ._. 
In_II this_DD1 instance_NN1 ,_, the_AT disturbances_NN2 were_VBDR precipitated_VVN when_CS four_MC black_JJ men_NN2 were_VBDR refused_VVN bail_NN1 at_II Liverpool_NP1 Magistrates_NN2 '_GE Court_NN1 ._. 
During_II the_AT summer_NNT1 there_EX had_VHD been_VBN reports_NN2 of_IO rising_VVG tension_NN1 in_II the_AT area_NN1 ,_, and_CC on_II 30_MC August_NPM1 a_AT1 crowd_NN1 demonstrated_VVN outside_II Toxteth_NP1 Police_NN2 Station_NN1 and_CC then_RT attacked_VVD police_NN2 cars_NN2 and_CC the_AT station_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
A_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO assaults_NN2 on_II police-officers_NN2 were_VBDR also_RR reported_VVN ._. 
As_CSA in_II Brixton_NP1 and_CC Handsworth_NP1 ,_, police_NN2 relations_NN2 with_IW youths_NN2 ,_, and_CC especially_RR with_IW young_JJ black_JJ people_NN ,_, were_VBDR a_AT1 significant_JJ factor_NN1 in_II the_AT explosive_JJ mixture_NN1 ,_, and_CC in_II Toxteth_NP1 ,_, too_RR ,_, the_AT disorder_NN1 was_VBDZ precipitated_VVN by_II an_AT1 incident_NN1 involving_VVG police_NN2 officers_NN2 and_CC black_JJ people_NN ._. 
The_AT most_RGT serious_JJ of_IO the_AT disorders_NN2 occurred_VVD at_II the_AT Broadwater_JJR Farm_NN1 Estate_NN1 ,_, in_II Tottenham_NP1 ,_, London_NP1 ._. 
The_AT rioting_NN1 began_VVD about_RG 7.00_MC p._NNU m._NNO on_II Sunday_NPD1 ,_, 6_MC October_NPM1 1985_MC ,_, and_CC during_II a_AT1 night_NNT1 of_IO extraordinary_JJ violence_NN1 Police_NN2 Constable_NNB Keith_NP1 Blakelock_NP1 was_VBDZ stabbed_VVN to_II death_NN1 ,_, 20_MC members_NN2 of_IO the_AT public_NN1 and_CC 223_MC police-officers_NN2 were_VBDR injured_VVN ,_, and_CC 47_MC cars_NN2 and_CC some_DD buildings_NN2 were_VBDR burned_VVN ._. 
Guns_NN2 were_VBDR fired_VVN at_II the_AT police_NN2 ,_, causing_VVG injuries_NN2 to_II several_DA2 officers_NN2 and_CC reporters_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT forces_NN2 were_VBDR issued_VVN with_IW CS_NP2 gas_NN1 and_CC plastic_NN1 bullets_NN2 ,_, although_CS these_DD2 were_VBDR not_XX used_VVN ._. 
As_CSA in_II Handsworth_NP1 ,_, Brixton_NP1 ,_, and_CC Toxteth_NP1 ,_, the_AT context_NN1 within_II which_DDQ the_AT disturbances_NN2 occurred_VVD in_II Tottenham_NP1 was_VBDZ one_MC1 of_IO deteriorating_JJ relations_NN2 between_II the_AT police_NN2 and_CC young_JJ people_NN ,_, especially_RR blacks_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT trigger_NN1 event_NN1 involved_VVD police-officers_NN2 and_CC black_JJ people_NN (_( Gifford_NP1 ,_, 1986_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT chief_JJ superintendent_NN1 for_IF the_AT area_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 firm_JJ believer_NN1 in_II community_NN1 policing_NN1 ,_, and_CC he_PPHS1 put_VVD as_CSA his_APPGE first_MD priority_NN1 the_AT prevention_NN1 of_IO public_JJ disorder_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ clear_JJ that_CST many_DA2 of_IO his_APPGE police_NN2 constables_NN2 and_CC sergeants_NN2 did_VDD not_XX agree_VVI with_IW this_DD1 approach_NN1 ._. 
During_II the_AT summer_NNT1 of_IO 1985_MC there_EX was_VBDZ evidence_NN1 of_IO increasing_JJ tension_NN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 prominent_JJ member_NN1 of_IO the_AT Hornsey_NP1 Police_NN2 Federation_NN1 was_VBDZ quoted_VVN as_CSA saying_VVG that_DD1 rank_NN1 and_CC file_NN1 officers_NN2 '_GE desperately_RR wanted_VVN to_TO go_VVI in_II hard_JJ and_CC sort_VVI out_RP the_AT criminals_NN2 '_GE ._. 
Some_DD serious_JJ incidents_NN2 occurred_VVD during_II this_DD1 period_NN1 on_II the_AT Broadwater_JJR Farm_NN1 Estate_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 an_AT1 attack_NN1 on_II police_NN2 by_II youths_NN2 which_DDQ resulted_VVD in_II one_MC1 officer_NN1 sustaining_VVG a_AT1 bad_JJ head_NN1 wound_NN1 ,_, and_CC there_EX was_VBDZ also_RR a_AT1 series_NN of_IO attacks_NN2 on_II an_AT1 Asian-owned_JJ supermarket_NN1 ._. 
Senior_JJ police-officers_NN2 appeared_VVD to_TO play_VVI these_DD2 incidents_NN2 down_RP ,_, but_CCB black_JJ youths_NN2 complained_VVD that_CST on_II the_AT estate_NN1 they_PPHS2 were_VBDR increasingly_RR harassed_VVN by_II the_AT police_NN2 ._. 
The_AT incident_NN1 which_DDQ precipitated_VVD the_AT riot_NN1 began_VVD when_RRQ police-officers_NN2 stopped_VVD a_AT1 car_NN1 driven_VVN by_II Floyd_NP1 Jarrett_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 23-year-old_JJ black_JJ man_NN1 well_RR known_VVN in_II the_AT area_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT officers_NN2 decided_VVD to_TO arrest_VVI Jarrett_NP1 for_IF suspected_JJ theft_NN1 of_IO the_AT car_NN1 ,_, but_CCB after_CS an_AT1 altercation_NN1 Jarrett_NP1 was_VBDZ in_II fact_NN1 charged_VVN with_IW assaulting_VVG a_AT1 police-officer_NN1 ._. 
On_II 13_MC December_NPM1 1985_MC Jarrett_NP1 was_VBDZ acquitted_VVN of_IO this_DD1 charge_NN1 ,_, and_CC was_VBDZ awarded_VVN 350_MC costs_NN2 against_II the_AT police_NN2 ._. 
While_CS he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ detained_VVN at_II the_AT police_NN2 station_VV0 a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO police-officers_NN2 used_VVD a_AT1 key_NN1 taken_VVN from_II the_AT arrested_JJ man_NN1 to_TO enter_VVI his_APPGE mother_NN1 's_VBZ home_RL ._. 
During_II the_AT police_NN2 search_NN1 of_IO the_AT house_NN1 Mrs_NNB Cynthia_NP1 Jarrett_NP1 collapsed_VVD ._. 
The_AT family_NN1 alleged_VVD that_CST her_APPGE death_NN1 was_VBDZ caused_VVN by_II a_AT1 police-officer_NN1 who_PNQS pushed_VVD her_PPHO1 over_RP ;_; the_AT police_NN2 denied_VVD that_CST this_DD1 had_VHD occurred_VVN ._. 
On_II 4_MC December_NPM1 1985_MC the_AT inquest_NN1 returned_VVD a_AT1 verdict_NN1 of_IO accidental_JJ death_NN1 ._. 
Mrs_NNB Jarrett_NP1 was_VBDZ certified_VVN dead_JJ at_II 6.35_MC p.m._RA on_II Saturday_NPD1 ,_, 5_MC October_NPM1 ,_, and_CC news_NN1 of_IO the_AT tragedy_NN1 spread_VVD quickly_RR around_II the_AT estate_NN1 during_II the_AT evening_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT next_MD day_NNT1 ,_, after_CS sporadic_JJ incidents_NN2 ,_, violent_JJ disorder_NN1 erupted_VVN at_II about_RG 7.00_MC p._NNU m_NNO ._. 
Disorder_NN1 occurred_VVD again_RT in_II 1986_MC ._. 
During_II the_AT spring_NN1 there_EX were_VBDR renewed_JJ reports_NN2 of_IO increasing_JJ tension_NN1 in_II some_DD areas_NN2 ._. 
In_II Notting_NP1 Hill_NP1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, there_EX were_VBDR allegations_NN2 of_IO assaults_NN2 by_II the_AT police_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT planting_NN1 of_IO drugs_NN2 ,_, while_CS in_II Nottingham_NP1 a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO forced_JJ entries_NN2 into_II black_JJ people_NN 's_GE homes_NN2 and_CC a_AT1 series_NN of_IO street_NN1 searches_NN2 caused_VVD widespread_JJ anger_NN1 ._. 
On_II the_AT Broadwater_JJR Farm_NN1 Estate_NN1 virtually_RR every_AT1 black_JJ male_NN1 under_RG 30_MC was_VBDZ interrogated_VVN over_RG 350_MC people_NN were_VBDR arrested_VVN although_CS most_DAT were_VBDR released_VVN without_IW charge_NN1 ._. 
In_II July_NPM1 1986_MC the_AT Metropolitan_JJ Police_NN2 mounted_VVD a_AT1 huge_JJ raid_NN1 in_II Brixton_NP1 ,_, involving_VVG nearly_RR 2,000_MC officers_NN2 ,_, aimed_VVN at_II selected_JJ premises_NN2 in_II which_DDQ cannabis_NN1 offences_NN2 were_VBDR allegedly_RR being_VBG committed_VVN ._. 
In_II early_JJ September_NPM1 1986_MC serious_JJ disorder_NN1 occurred_VVD on_II the_AT streets_NN2 of_IO the_AT North_ND1 Prospect_NN1 Estate_NN1 in_II the_AT Devonport_NN1 constituency_NN1 of_IO Plymouth_NP1 ._. 
A_AT1 large_JJ crowd_NN1 of_IO white_JJ youths_NN2 set_VV0 up_RP burning_JJ barricades_NN2 and_CC smashed_JJ windows_NN2 ,_, doors_NN2 ,_, and_CC fences_NN2 on_II the_AT estate_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 few_DA2 days_NNT2 later_RRR the_AT Avon_NP1 and_CC Somerset_NP1 Police_NN2 organized_VVD a_AT1 large_JJ raid_NN1 in_II the_AT St_NP1 Paul_NP1 's_GE district_NN1 of_IO Bristol_NP1 ._. 
Almost_RR exactly_RR one_MC1 year_NNT1 after_II the_AT Handsworth_NP1 riots_NN2 ,_, 600_MC police_NN2 moved_VVN into_II the_AT area_NN1 to_TO search_VVI several_DA2 premises_NN2 in_II31 connection_II32 with_II33 drugs_NN2 and_CC drinking_VVG offences_NN2 ._. 
The_AT reaction_NN1 was_VBDZ serious_JJ rioting_NN1 and_CC attacks_NN2 on_II the_AT police_NN2 involving_VVG petrol_NN1 bombs_NN2 ,_, bricks_NN2 ,_, and_CC stones_NN2 ._. 
In_II 1987_MC disorder_NN1 occurred_VVD in_II Wolverhampton_NP1 after_II a_AT1 black_JJ youth_NN1 died_VVD of_IO asphyxiation_NN1 while_CS being_VBG arrested_VVN on_II 20_MC February_NPM1 ._. 
Later_RRR in_II the_AT year_NNT1 ,_, violent_JJ clashes_NN2 occurred_VVD on_II the_AT streets_NN2 of_IO MAKING_VVG SENSE_NN1 OF_IO THE_AT 1981_MC RIOTS_NN2 Reactions_NN2 to_II the_AT riots_NN2 have_VH0 concentrated_VVN on_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO key_JJ variables_NN2 that_CST are_VBR said_VVN to_TO characterize_VVI the_AT localities_NN2 in_II which_DDQ the_AT riots_NN2 have_VH0 occurred_VVN ._. 
Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 's_GE report_NN1 on_II the_AT 1981_MC disorders_NN2 highlighted_VVD the_AT importance_NN1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 ,_, urban_JJ deprivation_NN1 ,_, racial_JJ disadvantage_NN1 ,_, relations_NN2 between_II young_JJ blacks_NN2 and_CC the_AT police_NN2 ,_, the_AT decline_NN1 of_IO civic_JJ consent_NN1 ,_, and_CC political_JJ exclusion_NN1 as_II the_AT key_JJ issues_NN2 ._. 
Other_JJ reactions_NN2 have_VH0 concentrated_VVN on_II the_AT issue_NN1 of_IO the_AT interplay_NN1 between_II inner-city_JJ decay_NN1 and_CC racial_JJ disadvantage_NN1 in_II contemporary_JJ Britain_NP1 ._. 
Yet_RR others_NN2 have_VH0 argued_VVN that_CST the_AT unrest_NN1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 symptom_NN1 of_IO the_AT breakdown_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 in_II British_JJ society_NN1 (_( Gaffney_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC ;_; Hall_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC ;_; Keith_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT main_JJ issues_NN2 that_CST were_VBDR prominent_JJ in_II debates_NN2 during_II 19801_MC were_VBDR '_GE race_NN1 '_GE and_CC '_GE law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 '_GE ._. 
This_DD1 was_VBDZ by_RR31 no_RR32 means_RR33 an_AT1 accident_NN1 ,_, since_CS throughout_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 a_AT1 powerful_JJ body_NN1 of_IO media_NN ,_, political_JJ ,_, and_CC academic_JJ opinion_NN1 had_VHD been_VBN constructed_VVN around_II the_AT theme_NN1 of_IO how_RRQ Britain_NP1 was_VBDZ drifting_VVG into_II a_AT1 '_GE violent_JJ society_NN1 '_GE ,_, and_CC how_RRQ the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO consent_NN1 was_VBDZ being_VBG shifted_VVN by_II the_AT pressures_NN2 of_IO immigration_NN1 and_CC the_AT growth_NN1 of_IO multi-racial_JJ inner_JJ city_NN1 areas_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 glimpse_NN1 of_IO the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO the_AT 19801_MC riots_NN2 at_II this_DD1 level_NN1 can_VM be_VBI achieved_VVN through_II two_MC important_JJ debates_NN2 in_II Parliament_NN1 ._. 
The_AT first_MD took_VVD place_NN1 in_II the_AT midst_NN1 of_IO the_AT July_NPM1 1981_MC riots_NN2 ,_, and_CC had_VHD as_II its_APPGE theme_NN1 :_: '_GE Civil_JJ Disturbances_NN2 '_GE ._. 
The_AT tone_NN1 of_IO the_AT debate_NN1 was_VBDZ set_VVN by_II Home_NN1 Secretary_NN1 William_NP1 Whitelaw_NP1 's_GE introductory_JJ statement_NN1 in_II which_DDQ he_PPHS1 spoke_VVD of_IO (_( a_ZZ1 )_) the_AT need_NN1 to_TO '_" remove_VVI the_AT scourge_NN1 of_IO criminal_JJ violence_NN1 from_II our_APPGE streets_NN2 '_GE ,_, and_CC (_( b_ZZ1 )_) the_AT urgency_NN1 of_IO developing_NN1 '_GE policies_NN2 designed_VVN to_TO promote_VVI the_AT mutual_JJ tolerance_NN1 and_CC understanding_VVG upon_II which_DDQ the_AT whole_JJ future_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 free_JJ democratic_JJ society_NN1 depends_58 '_GE (_( Hansard_NP1 ,_, vol._NNU 8_MC ,_, 16_MC July_NPM1 1981_MC :_: col._NNU 1405_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT '_GE scourge_NN1 of_IO criminal_JJ violence_NN1 '_GE was_VBDZ ,_, Whitelaw_NP1 argued_VVD ,_, a_AT1 danger_NN1 to_II the_AT whole_JJ framework_NN1 of_IO consent_NN1 and_CC legality_NN1 on_II which_DDQ the_AT political_JJ institutions_NN2 of_IO British_JJ society_NN1 were_VBDR based_VVN ._. 
In_II reply_NN1 Roy_NP1 Hattersley_NP1 supported_VVD the_AT call_NN1 for_IF the_AT immediate_JJ suppression_NN1 of_IO street_NN1 violence_NN1 ,_, but_CCB warned_VVD that_CST the_AT roots_NN2 of_IO such_DA riots_NN2 could_VM not_XX be_VBI dealt_VVN with_IW until_CS all_DB people_NN felt_VVD they_PPHS2 had_VHD a_AT1 stake_NN1 in_II British_JJ society_NN1 (_( ibid._RR :_: cols._NNU 14079_MC )_) The_AT second_MD debate_NN1 took_VVD place_NN1 on_II 26_MC November_NPM1 1981_MC ,_, on_II the_AT publication_NN1 of_IO the_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 ,_, and_CC had_VHD as_II its_APPGE theme_NN1 :_: '_GE Law_NN1 and_CC Order_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT importance_NN1 of_IO the_AT riots_NN2 in_II pushing_VVG the_AT law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 issue_NN1 ,_, and_CC specifically_RR policing_VVG ,_, on_II21 to_II22 the_AT main_JJ political_JJ agenda_NN1 was_VBDZ emphasized_VVN by_II the_AT Liberal_JJ leader_NN1 ,_, David_NP1 Steel_NP1 ,_, who_PNQS argued_VVD that_DD1 '_VBZ urgent_JJ action_NN1 '_GE to_TO prevent_VVI a_AT1 drift_NN1 into_II lawlessness_NN1 was_VBDZ necessary_JJ from_II both_RR a_AT1 moral_JJ and_CC a_AT1 political_JJ perspective_NN1 (_( Hansard_NP1 ,_, vol._NNU 13_MC ,_, 26_MC November_NPM1 1981_MC :_: cols._NNU 100911_MC )_) ._. 
A_AT1 subsequent_JJ debate_NN1 on_II the_AT same_DA issue_NN1 in_II March_NPM1 1982_MC was_VBDZ also_RR full_JJ of_IO references_NN2 to_II the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO 1981_MC ,_, the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO street_NN1 violence_NN1 ,_, crime_NN1 ,_, decaying_VVG urban_JJ conditions_NN2 ,_, the_AT breakdown_NN1 of_IO consent_NN1 between_II the_AT police_NN2 and_CC many_DA2 local_JJ communities_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT spectre_NN1 of_IO '_" more_DAR violence_NN1 to_TO come_VVI '_" if_CSW changes_NN2 in_II both_DB2 policing_VVG tactics_NN2 and_CC social_JJ policy_NN1 were_VBDR not_XX swiftly_RR introduced_VVN (_( Hansard_NP1 ,_, vol._NNU 20_MC ,_, 25_MC March_NPM1 1982_MC :_: cols._NNU 110781_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT need_NN1 to_TO support_VVI the_AT police_NN2 was_VBDZ accepted_VVN by_II both_DB2 the_AT Labour_JJ and_CC the_AT Conservative_JJ speakers_NN2 in_II the_AT parliamentary_JJ debate_NN1 on_II the_AT riots_NN2 ,_, and_CC was_VBDZ established_VVN as_II a_AT1 benchmark_NN1 for_IF the_AT official_JJ response_NN1 to_II the_AT riots_NN2 long_RR before_II the_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 was_VBDZ published_VVN in_II November_NPM1 1981_MC ._. 
Any_DD substantive_JJ disagreement_NN1 centred_VVN around_II the_AT issue_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ role_NN1 social_JJ deprivation_NN1 and_CC unemployment_NN1 had_VHD in_II bringing_VVG young_JJ people_NN to_TO protest_VVI violently_RR on_II the_AT streets_NN2 ._. 
Intermingled_VVD with_IW the_AT discourses_NN2 about_II race_NN1 and_CC law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 were_VBDR constant_JJ references_NN2 to_II unemployment_NN1 ,_, particularly_RR among_II the_AT young_JJ ,_, and_CC various_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO social_JJ disadvantage_NN1 and_CC poverty_NN1 (_( Solomos_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 186911_MC )_) ._. 
Throughout_II 1980_MC and_CC 1981_MC debates_NN2 about_II the_AT riots_NN2 in_II the_AT media_NN ,_, in_II Parliament_NN1 ,_, and_CC in_II various_JJ official_JJ reports_NN2 hinged_VVN around_II the_AT interrelationship_NN1 between_II racial_JJ ,_, law-and-order_NN1 ,_, and_CC social_JJ factors_NN2 ._. 
The_AT importance_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 debate_NN1 can_VM be_VBI explained_VVN ,_, partly_RR ,_, by_II the_AT political_JJ capital_NN1 which_DDQ the_AT Opposition_NN1 could_VM make_VVI from_II linking_VVG the_AT social_JJ and_CC economic_JJ malaise_NN1 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 at_RR21 large_RR22 with_IW violent_JJ street_NN1 disturbances_NN2 ._. 
Conversely_RR ,_, throughout_II this_DD1 period_NN1 Government_NN1 Ministers_NN2 strenuously_RR denied_VVN that_DD1 unemployment_NN1 and_CC social_JJ deprivation_NN1 were_VBDR significant_JJ causes_NN2 of_IO urban_JJ unrest_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS the_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 is_VBZ often_RR taken_VVN to_TO be_VBI the_AT central_JJ text_NN1 which_DDQ argues_VVZ for_IF a_AT1 link_NN1 between_RL '_GE social_JJ conditions_NN2 '_GE and_CC '_GE disorder_NN1 '_GE ,_, the_AT terms_NN2 of_IO the_AT debate_NN1 were_VBDR by_RR31 no_RR32 means_RR33 set_VVN by_II Scarman_NP1 ._. 
During_II both_RR April_NPM1 and_CC July_NPM1 1981_MC vigorous_JJ exchanges_NN2 took_VVD place_NN1 in_II the_AT press_NN1 and_CC in_II Parliament_NN1 about_II the_AT role_NN1 that_CST deteriorating_JJ social_JJ conditions_NN2 and_CC unemployment_NN1 may_VM have_VHI played_VVN in_II bringing_VVG about_RP the_AT riots_NN2 ._. 
During_II the_AT 16_MC July_NPM1 parliamentary_JJ debate_NN1 on_II '_GE Civil_JJ Disturbances_NN2 '_GE ,_, Roy_NP1 Hattersley_NP1 's_GE formulation_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 linkage_NN1 provided_VVD a_AT1 useful_JJ summary_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE social_JJ conditions_NN2 '_GE argument_NN1 ._. 
After_CS some_DD preliminary_JJ remarks_NN2 about_II the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 's_GE support_NN1 for_IF the_AT police_NN2 ,_, he_PPHS1 went_VVD on_RP to_TO outline_VVI his_APPGE opposition_NN1 to_II the_AT view_NN1 of_IO the_AT riots_NN2 as_CSA essentially_RR anti-police_NN2 outbursts_NN2 :_: I_PPIS1 repeat_VV0 that_CST l_ZZ1 do_VD0 not_XX believe_VVI that_CST the_AT principal_JJ cause_NN1 of_IO last_MD week_NNT1 's_GE riots_NN2 was_VBDZ the_AT conduct_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT conditions_NN2 of_IO deprivation_NN1 and_CC despair_NN1 in_II the_AT decaying_JJ areas_NN2 of_IO our_APPGE old_JJ cities_NN2 areas_NN2 in_II which_DDQ the_AT Brixton_NP1 and_CC Toxteth_VVZ riots_NN2 took_VVD place_NN1 ,_, and_CC areas_NN2 from_II which_DDQ the_AT skinhead_NN1 invaders_NN2 of_IO Southall_NP1 come_VV0 ._. 
(_( Hansard_NP1 ,_, vol._NNU 8_MC ,_, 16_MC July_NPM1 1981_MC :_: col._NNU 1408_MC )_) Much_RR of_IO the_AT subsequent_JJ controversy_NN1 about_II this_DD1 analysis_NN1 centred_VVN on_II the_AT question_NN1 of_IO youth_NN1 unemployment_NN1 ._. 
Hattersley_NP1 had_VHD suggested_VVN that_CST the_AT riots_NN2 were_VBDR a_AT1 '_GE direct_JJ product_NN1 '_GE of_IO high_JJ levels_NN2 of_IO youth_NN1 unemployment_NN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 furious_JJ debate_NN1 ensued_VVN in_II both_DB2 Parliament_NN1 and_CC the_AT media_NN about_II this_DD1 assertion_NN1 ._. 
The_AT final_JJ symbolic_JJ cue_NN1 used_VMK to_TO make_VVI sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT 19801_MC protests_NN2 is_VBZ more_RGR difficult_JJ to_TO categorize_VVI ,_, but_CCB its_APPGE basic_JJ meaning_NN1 can_VM be_VBI captured_VVN by_II the_AT term_NN1 '_GE political_JJ marginality_NN1 '_GE ._. 
While_CS a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO discussions_NN2 of_IO the_AT roots_NN2 of_IO urban_JJ unrest_NN1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 have_VH0 noted_VVN the_AT salience_NN1 of_IO political_JJ marginality_NN1 in_II determining_JJ participation_NN1 in_II violent_JJ protests_NN2 (_( Skolnick_NP1 ,_, 1969_MC ;_; Fogelson_NP1 ,_, 1971_MC ;_; Edelman_NP1 ,_, 1971_MC ;_; Knopf_NP1 ,_, 1975_MC )_) ,_, this_DD1 issue_NN1 has_VHZ received_VVN relatively_RR little_JJ attention_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
Nevertheless_RR ,_, during_II the_AT 19801_MC events_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE aftermath_NN1 the_AT political_JJ context_NN1 was_VBDZ discussed_VVN from_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO perspectives_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, located_VVD part_NN1 of_IO the_AT explanation_NN1 for_IF the_AT riots_NN2 in_II the_AT feelings_NN2 of_IO alienation_NN1 and_CC powerlessness_NN1 which_DDQ were_VBDR experienced_VVN by_II young_JJ blacks_NN2 living_VVG in_II depressed_JJ inner-city_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 successful_JJ policy_NN1 for_IF tackling_VVG the_AT roots_NN2 of_IO urban_JJ disorder_NN1 was_VBDZ seen_VVN as_CSA one_PN1 which_DDQ sought_VVD to_TO involve_VVI all_DB the_AT community_NN1 in_II dealing_VVG with_IW the_AT problems_NN2 of_IO each_DD1 area_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 they_PPHS2 could_VM come_VVI to_TO feel_VVI that_CST they_PPHS2 have_VH0 a_AT1 stake_NN1 in_II its_APPGE future_NN1 (_( Scarman_NP1 ,_, 1981_MC ,_, para_NN1 ._. 
6.42_MC )_) ._. 
Where_CS such_DA arguments_NN2 did_VDD not_XX fit_VVI in_RP with_IW the_AT overarching_JJ themes_NN2 of_IO race_NN1 ,_, violence_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 ,_, and_CC social_JJ deprivation_NN1 they_PPHS2 were_VBDR either_RR sidelined_VVN or_CC pushed_VVN into_II the_AT sub-clauses_NN2 of_IO official_JJ reports_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, contained_VVD the_AT following_JJ policy_NN1 proposal_NN1 :_: '_" I_PPIS1 recommend_VV0 that_CST local_JJ communities_NN2 must_VM be_VBI fully_RR and_CC effectively_RR involved_JJ in_II planning_NN1 ,_, in_II the_AT provision_NN1 of_IO local_JJ services_NN2 ,_, and_CC in_II the_AT management_NN1 and_CC financing_NN1 of_IO specific_JJ projects_NN2 ,_, (_( Scarman_NP1 ,_, 1981_MC ,_, para_NN1 ._. 
8.44_MC )_) ._. 
Such_DA a_AT1 move_NN1 towards_II greater_JJR political_JJ integration_NN1 was_VBDZ seen_VVN by_II Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 as_CSA essential_JJ if_CS the_AT gap_NN1 between_II inner-city_JJ residents_NN2 and_CC the_AT forces_NN2 of_IO law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI bridged_VVN ._. 
But_CCB the_AT concern_NN1 with_IW overcoming_VVG political_JJ marginality_NN1 remained_VVD on_II the_AT sidelines_NN2 of_IO the_AT main_JJ public_JJ debate_NN1 because_CS it_PPH1 questioned_VVD the_AT perception_NN1 of_IO the_AT rioters_NN2 as_CSA driven_VVN by_II irrational_JJ ,_, uncivilized_JJ ,_, and_CC criminal_JJ instincts_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 did_VDD not_XX ,_, however_RR ,_, stop_VV0 the_AT question_NN1 of_IO political_JJ marginality_NN1 and_CC the_AT need_NN1 to_TO reform_VVI existing_JJ policies_NN2 from_II being_VBG raised_VVN at_RR21 all_RR22 ,_, as_CSA can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN subsequently_RR by_II the_AT attempts_NN2 after_II 1981_MC to_TO introduce_VVI both_RR locally_RR and_CC nationally_RR measures_NN2 which_DDQ were_VBDR meant_VVN to_TO address_VVI some_DD of_IO the_AT grievances_NN2 of_IO the_AT rioters_NN2 and_CC to_TO ensure_VVI that_CST further_JJR disturbances_NN2 did_VDD not_XX occur_VVI ._. 
Aspects_NN2 of_IO these_DD2 measures_NN2 are_VBR considered_VVN further_RRR on_RP in_II the_AT chapter_NN1 ._. 
PERSPECTIVES_NN2 ON_II THE_AT 1985_MC RIOTS_NN2 Despite_II widespread_JJ predictions_NN2 of_IO further_JJR unrest_NN1 in_II the_AT aftermath_NN1 of_IO 1981_MC ,_, the_AT scale_NN1 and_CC the_AT location_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1985_MC riots_NN2 seem_VV0 to_TO have_VHI surprised_VVN even_RR some_DD of_IO the_AT most_RGT astute_JJ commentators_NN2 ._. 
Handsworth_NP1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, was_VBDZ presented_VVN even_RR shortly_RR before_II September_NPM1 1985_MC as_II a_AT1 '_GE success_NN1 story_NN1 '_GE in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 police_NN2 community_NN1 relations_NN2 ._. 
The_AT outbreak_NN1 of_IO violence_NN1 in_II this_DD1 area_NN1 was_VBDZ therefore_RR widely_RR presented_VVN as_II an_AT1 aberration_NN1 ._. 
Similarly_RR the_AT spread_NN1 of_IO violence_NN1 in_II London_NP1 to_II areas_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 the_AT Broadwater_JJR Farm_NN1 Estate_NN1 in_II Tottenham_NP1 was_VBDZ seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 break_NN1 from_II previous_JJ experience_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ had_VHD centred_VVN on_II areas_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 Brixton_NP1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR many_DA2 continuities_NN2 between_II 19801_MC and_CC 1985_MC in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 the_AT common-sense_NN1 images_NN2 used_VVN in_II the_AT press_NN1 and_CC television_NN1 to_TO cover_VVI the_AT events_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB responses_NN2 in_II 1985_MC were_VBDR different_JJ ,_, at_RR21 least_RR22 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 degree_NN1 ,_, and_CC probably_RR in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 the_AT extent_NN1 to_II which_DDQ the_AT riots_NN2 were_VBDR seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 '_GE race_NN1 '_GE phenomenon_NN1 by_II a_AT1 wider_JJR body_NN1 of_IO opinion_NN1 ._. 
The_AT ambiguities_NN2 and_CC sub-clauses_NN2 to_TO be_VBI found_VVN in_II much_DA1 of_IO the_AT press_NN1 coverage_NN1 during_II 19801_MC had_VHD at_RR21 least_RR22 acted_VVN as_II a_AT1 countervailing_JJ tendency_NN1 against_II the_AT more_RGR extreme_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO discourse_NN1 which_DDQ blamed_VVD the_AT riots_NN2 completely_RR on_II black_JJ people_NN ._. 
During_II the_AT 1985_MC riots_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE immediate_JJ aftermath_NN1 ,_, the_AT imagery_NN1 of_IO '_GE race_NN1 '_GE was_VBDZ used_VVN by_II sections_NN2 of_IO the_AT press_NN1 without_IW the_AT sense_NN1 of_IO ambiguity_NN1 which_DDQ could_VM still_RR be_VBI found_VVN in_II 19801_MC ._. 
The_AT '_GE silence_NN1 over_II race_NN1 '_GE was_VBDZ breached_VVN in_II 19801_MC ,_, but_CCB in_II 1985_MC debate_NN1 about_II racial_JJ issues_NN2 was_VBDZ taken_VVN a_AT1 step_NN1 further_RRR ._. 
Peregrine_NN1 Worsthorne_NP1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, used_VVD the_AT ferocity_NN1 of_IO the_AT confrontations_NN2 in_II Handsworth_NP1 ,_, Brixton_NP1 ,_, and_CC Tottenham_NP1 to_TO argue_VVI that_CST there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 major_JJ question_NN1 mark_NN1 over_II the_AT possibility_NN1 of_IO assimilating_VVG the_AT '_GE coloured_JJ population_NN1 '_GE into_II mainstream_NN1 '_GE British_JJ values_NN2 '_GE (_( Sunday_NP1 Telegraph_NN1 ,_, 29_MC September_NPM1 1985_MC )_) ._. 
To_TO be_VBI sure_JJ there_EX was_VBDZ still_RR a_AT1 strong_JJ response_NN1 opposing_VVG Enoch_NP1 Powell_NP1 's_GE call_NN1 for_IF repatriation_NN1 ,_, from_II all_DB shades_NN2 of_IO political_JJ opinion_NN1 ,_, but_CCB the_AT racialization_NN1 of_IO public_JJ debate_NN1 about_II the_AT 1985_MC riots_NN2 went_VVD much_RR further_RRR than_CSN 19801_MC ._. 
In_II this_DD1 context_NN1 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT externality_NN1 of_IO British_JJ Afro-Caribbeans_NP2 and_CC Asians_NN2 which_DDQ was_VBDZ highlighted_VVN rather_RG the_AT racist_JJ institutions_NN2 and_CC processes_NN2 which_DDQ worked_VVD against_II blacks_NN2 at_II all_DB levels_NN2 of_IO society_NN1 ._. 
The_AT usage_NN1 of_IO '_GE race_NN1 '_GE during_II the_AT September-October_NPM1 1985_MC period_NN1 took_VVD on_RP new_JJ meanings_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ had_VHD little_RR if_CS anything_PN1 to_TO do_VDI with_IW the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO racism_NN1 as_II such_DA ,_, since_CS the_AT emphasis_NN1 was_VBDZ on_II the_AT cultural_JJ characteristics_NN2 of_IO the_AT minority_NN1 communities_NN2 themselves_PPX2 ._. 
After_CS Handsworth_NP1 part_NN1 of_IO the_AT press_NN1 response_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO blame_VVI the_AT riot_NN1 on_II rivalry_NN1 between_II West_NP1 Indians_NN2 and_CC Asians_NN2 ,_, and_CC even_RR after_II the_AT arguments_NN2 were_VBDR criticized_VVN by_II local_JJ residents_NN2 ;_; and_CC community_NN1 leaders_NN2 ,_, they_PPHS2 were_VBDR used_VVN to_TO '_" explain_VVI '_" '_" what_DDQ happened_VVD ._. 
In_RR21 addition_RR22 ,_, the_AT question_NN1 whether_CSW the_AT cultures_NN2 and_CC values_NN2 of_IO the_AT black_JJ communities_NN2 ,_, their_APPGE family_NN1 structures_NN2 ,_, and_CC their_APPGE political_JJ attitudes_NN2 '_GE bred_VVD violence_NN1 '_GE was_VBDZ constantly_RR raised_VVN (_( van_NP1 Dijk_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT actual_JJ facts_NN2 '_GE of_IO who_PNQS was_VBDZ arrested_VVN during_II the_AT riots_NN2 ,_, whether_CSW black_JJ or_CC white_JJ ,_, were_VBDR hardly_RR debated_VVN since_CS it_PPH1 was_VBDZ assumed_VVN that_CST they_PPHS2 were_VBDR mostly_RR black_JJ and_CC mostly_RR unemployed_JJ and_CC involved_JJ with_IW crime_NN1 (_( Keith_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT imagery_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE black_JJ bomber_NN1 ,_, used_VVN in_II Handsworth_NP1 was_VBDZ extended_VVN to_II the_AT notion_NN1 that_CST there_EX were_VBDR groups_NN2 of_IO alienated_JJ and_CC criminalized_VVD young_JJ blacks_NN2 who_PNQS saw_VVD the_AT riots_NN2 as_II a_AT1 chance_NN1 to_TO engage_VVI in_II an_AT1 '_GE orgy_NN1 of_IO looting_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT Dear_JJ Report_NP1 on_II Handsworth_NP1 captures_VVZ this_DD1 image_NN1 and_CC links_VVZ it_PPH1 to_II the_AT social_JJ condition_NN1 of_IO young_JJ blacks_NN2 :_: The_AT majority_NN1 of_IO rioters_NN2 who_PNQS took_VVD part_NN1 in_II these_DD2 unhappy_JJ events_NN2 were_VBDR young_JJ ,_, black_JJ and_CC Afro-Caribbean_JJ origin_NN1 ._. 
Let_VV0 there_EX be_VBI no_RR21 doubt_RR22 ,_, these_DD2 young_JJ criminals_NN2 are_VBR not_XX in_II any_DD way_NN1 representative_NN1 of_IO the_AT vast_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO the_AT Afro-Caribbean_JJ community_NN1 whose_DDQGE life_NN1 has_VHZ contributed_VVN to_II the_AT life_NN1 and_CC culture_NN1 of_IO the_AT West_NP1 Midlands_NP2 over_II many_DA2 years_NNT2 and_CC whose_DDQGE hopes_NN2 and_CC aspirations_NN2 are_VBR at_II one_MC1 with_IW those_DD2 of_IO every_AT1 other_JJ law-abiding_JJ citizen_NN1 ._. 
We_PPIS2 share_VV0 a_AT1 common_JJ sorrow_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT duty_NN1 of_IO us_PPIO2 all_DB to_TO ensure_VVI that_CST an_AT1 entire_JJ cultural_JJ group_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX tainted_VVN by_II the_AT actions_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 criminal_JJ minority_NN1 ._. 
(_( Dear_UH ,_, 1985_MC ,_, p._NN1 69_MC )_) This_58 '_GE black_NN1 '_GE criminal_JJ minority_NN1 was_VBDZ constructed_VVN not_XX only_RR into_II the_AT leading_JJ force_NN1 behind_II the_AT riots_NN2 ,_, but_CCB sometimes_RT as_II the_AT only_JJ force_NN1 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, throughout_II September_NPM1 and_CC October_NPM1 1985_MC ,_, and_CC during_II the_AT following_JJ months_NNT2 ,_, the_AT imagery_NN1 of_IO race_NN1 continued_VVD to_TO dominate_VVI debate_NN1 about_II both_DB2 the_AT causes_NN2 and_CC the_AT policy_NN1 outcomes_NN2 of_IO the_AT riots_NN2 ._. 
As_CSA pointed_VVN out_RP earlier_RRR ,_, the_AT '_GE social_JJ causes_NN2 '_GE argument_NN1 was_VBDZ another_DD1 major_JJ plank_NN1 of_IO public_JJ debate_NN1 about_II the_AT 19801_MC riots_NN2 ,_, particularly_RR in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 the_AT highly_RR politicized_JJ issue_NN1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 ._. 
During_II 1985_MC this_DD1 issue_NN1 was_VBDZ raised_VVN once_RR21 again_RR22 ,_, though_CS by_II then_RT the_AT extent_NN1 of_IO mass_JJ unemployment_NN1 and_CC urban_JJ de-industrialization_NN1 and_CC decay_NN1 was_VBDZ more_RGR stark_JJ than_CSN it_PPH1 had_VHD been_VBN in_II 198l_NNU ._. 
Images_NN2 of_IO '_GE urban_JJ decay_NN1 '_GE ,_, '_GE tinderbox_NN1 cities_NN2 '_GE ,_, and_CC '_GE ghetto_NN1 streets_NN2 '_GE linked_VVN up_RP with_IW the_AT images_NN2 of_IO '_GE race_NN1 inequality_NN1 '_GE and_CC '_GE black_JJ ghettos_NN2 '_GE to_TO produce_VVI an_AT1 analysis_NN1 more_RGR complex_JJ but_CCB also_RR more_RGR contradictory_JJ ._. 
An_AT1 interesting_JJ mixture_NN1 of_IO the_AT various_JJ images_NN2 was_VBDZ provided_VVN by_II a_AT1 story_NN1 in_II the_AT Daily_JJ Telegraph_NN1 under_II the_AT headline_NN1 :_: '_GE Broadwater_JJR Farm_NN1 :_: Like_II the_AT Divis_NN2 Flats_NN2 with_IW Reggae_NN1 '_GE (_( 8_MC October_NPM1 1985_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT Mirror_NN1 described_VVD the_AT estate_NN1 as_II '_GE Living_JJ Hell_NN1 '_GE ,_, and_CC quoted_VVD one_MC1 resident_NN1 as_CSA saying_VVG that_DD1 '_VBZ You_PPY 've_VH0 no_AT idea_NN1 how_RRQ awful_JJ daily_JJ life_NN1 is_58 '_GE (_( 8_MC October_NPM1 1985_MC )_) ._. 
Such_DA images_NN2 were_VBDR reworkings_NN2 of_IO arguments_NN2 already_RR used_VVN about_II Toxteth_NP1 in_II 1981_MC and_CC Brixton_NP1 in_II 1981_MC ,_, but_CCB they_PPHS2 were_VBDR used_VVN more_RGR widely_RR than_CSN in_II 19801_MC ._. 
Even_RR the_AT Daily_JJ Mail_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ deployed_VVD the_AT clearest_JJT use_NN1 of_IO '_GE race_NN1 '_GE and_CC '_GE outside_JJ agitator_NN1 '_GE arguments_NN2 ,_, ran_VVD a_AT1 major_JJ story_NN1 on_II Broadwater_JJR Farm_NN1 under_II the_AT headline_NN1 :_: '_GE Burnt-out_JJ hulks_NN2 litter_VV0 this_DD1 concrete_JJ jungle_NN1 ..._... despair_NN1 hangs_VVZ heavy_JJ '_GE (_( 8_MC October_NPM1 1985_MC )_) ._. 
A_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO stories_NN2 using_VVG such_DA imagery_NN1 were_VBDR run_VVN by_II both_DB2 the_AT quality_NN1 and_CC the_AT popular_JJ press_NN1 during_II this_DD1 period_NN1 ,_, but_CCB similar_JJ arguments_NN2 are_VBR to_TO be_VBI found_VVN in_II parliamentary_JJ debates_NN2 (_( Hansard_NP1 ,_, vol._NNU 84_MC ,_, 21_MC October_NPM1 1985_MC ,_, cols._NNU 30-.46_MCMC ,_, 388_MC )_) ,_, and_CC even_RR in_II official_JJ reports_NN2 produced_VVN by_II the_AT police_NN2 on_II the_AT riots_NN2 in_II Birmingham_NP1 and_CC London_NP1 ._. 
The_AT '_GE cities_NN2 of_IO inner_JJ despair_NN1 '_GE were_VBDR conceived_VVN as_II the_AT breeding_NN1 ground_NN1 for_IF disorderly_JJ protest_NN1 ,_, and_CC however_RR hard_RR the_AT Government_NN1 tried_VVD to_TO break_VVI the_AT causal_JJ link_NN1 between_II the_AT two_MC ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ forced_VVN to_TO take_VVI on_RL21 board_RL22 the_AT need_NN1 to_TO restore_VVI order_NN1 not_XX only_RR through_II the_AT police_NN2 but_CCB through_II promises_NN2 of_IO help_NN1 for_IF the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 ._. 
Much_DA1 as_CSA in_II 19801_MC ,_, the_AT '_GE social_JJ causes_NN2 '_GE argument_NN1 can_VM not_XX be_VBI seen_VVN separately_RR from_II the_AT broader_JJR debate_NN1 about_II the_AT future_NN1 of_IO the_AT British_JJ economy_NN1 and_CC society_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Government_NN1 's_GE record_NN1 on_II unemployment_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 heavily_RR politicized_JJ issue_NN1 ,_, and_CC just_RR as_CSA in_II 1981_MC it_PPH1 vehemently_RR denied_VVN any_DD responsibility_NN1 for_IF the_AT riots_NN2 through_II its_APPGE pursuit_NN1 of_IO free-market_NN1 policies_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB the_AT Government_NN1 did_VDD find_VVI a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO accepting_VVG a_AT1 link_NN1 between_II the_AT riots_NN2 and_CC social_JJ problems_NN2 without_IW bringing_VVG its_APPGE main_JJ policies_NN2 into_II the_AT debate_NN1 :_: namely_REX by_II linking_VVG the_AT growth_NN1 of_IO violent_JJ disorder_NN1 to_II crime_NN1 and_CC drugs_NN2 ._. 
The_AT emphasis_NN1 on_II '_GE crime_NN1 '_GE and_CC the_AT '_GE criminal_JJ acts_NN2 '_GE of_IO the_AT rioters_NN2 in_II the_AT official_JJ responses_NN2 to_II the_AT 1985_MC riots_NN2 took_VVD a_AT1 general_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 specific_JJ form_NN1 ._. 
The_AT general_JJ form_NN1 relied_VVN on_II the_AT argument_NN1 that_CST the_AT riots_NN2 were_VBDR not_XX a_AT1 form_NN1 of_IO protest_NN1 against_II the_AT insufferable_JJ social_JJ conditions_NN2 of_IO inner-city_JJ areas_NN2 or_CC the_AT actions_NN2 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 ,_, but_CCB a_AT1 '_GE criminal_JJ act_NN1 '_GE or_CC a_AT1 '_GE cry_NN1 for_IF loot_NN1 '_GE ._. 
This_DD1 was_VBDZ an_AT1 argument_NN1 put_VVN most_RGT succinctly_RR by_II Geoffrey_NP1 Dear_JJ ,_, Chief_NN1 Constable_NN1 of_IO the_AT West_NP1 Midlands_NP2 (_( Dear_UH ,_, 1985_MC )_) and_CC by_II Douglas_NP1 Hurd_NP1 ,_, the_AT Home_NN1 Secretary_NN1 ,_, in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 Handsworth_NP1 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 recurred_VVD as_II a_AT1 theme_NN1 in_II official_JJ and_CC press_VV0 responses_NN2 to_II the_AT other_JJ riots_NN2 ._. 
The_AT specific_JJ form_NN1 was_VBDZ built_VVN upon_II the_AT notion_NN1 that_CST the_AT outbreak_NN1 of_IO violence_NN1 in_II Handsworth_NP1 and_CC Brixton_NP1 ,_, in_RR21 particular_RR22 ,_, was_VBDZ brought_VVN about_RP by_II '_GE drug_NN1 barons_NN2 '_GE who_PNQS saw_VVD the_AT police_NN2 attempting_VVG to_TO curb_VVI their_APPGE activities_NN2 and_CC control_NN1 '_GE their_APPGE territory_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Numerous_JJ examples_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 line_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 can_VM be_VBI found_VVN in_II Dear_NN1 's_GE report_NN1 on_II Handsworth_NP1 ,_, and_CC in_II press_NN1 coverage_NN1 during_II the_AT riots_NN2 ._. 
Taking_VVG the_AT specific_JJ argument_NN1 about_II the_AT role_NN1 of_IO drugs_NN2 and_CC '_GE drug_NN1 barons_NN2 '_GE in_II stimulating_VVG the_AT riots_NN2 ,_, this_DD1 seems_VVZ to_TO have_VHI served_VVN two_MC purposes_NN2 ._. 
First_MD ,_, it_PPH1 distanced_VVD the_AT riots_NN2 from_II the_AT social_JJ ,_, economic_JJ ,_, political_JJ ,_, and_CC other_JJ grievances_NN2 which_DDQ had_VHD been_VBN linked_VVN to_II them_PPHO2 by_II locating_VVG the_AT cause_NN1 outside_II the_AT '_GE social_JJ problems_NN2 '_GE of_IO inner-city_JJ dwellers_NN2 and_CC in_II the_AT '_GE simple_JJ greed_NN1 '_GE of_IO the_AT drug_NN1 barons_NN2 to_TO accumulate_VVI '_GE loot_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Second_MD ,_, just_RR as_RG Dear_JJ 's_GE image_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 few_DA2 hundred_NNO '_GE young_JJ black_JJ criminals_NN2 '_GE was_VBDZ used_VVN to_TO explain_VVI what_DDQ happened_VVD in_II Handsworth_NP1 ,_, the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO drugs_NN2 was_VBDZ used_VVN to_TO explain_VVI what_DDQ happened_VVD at_II a_AT1 national_JJ level_NN1 ._. 
The_AT issue_NN1 of_IO drugs_NN2 provided_VVD an_AT1 everyday_JJ image_NN1 ,_, already_RR a_AT1 national_JJ issue_NN1 through_II saturation_NN1 media_NN coverage_NN1 and_CC public_JJ debate_NN1 ,_, around_II which_DDQ the_AT police_NN2 ,_, the_AT Home_NN1 Office_NN1 ,_, and_CC other_JJ institutions_NN2 could_VM depoliticize_VVI the_AT riots_NN2 ._. 
Responding_VVG to_II the_AT Handsworth_NP1 events_NN2 Douglas_NP1 Hurd_NP1 was_VBDZ moved_VVN to_TO argue_VVI forcibly_RR that_DD1 such_DA events_NN2 were_VBDR senseless_JJ and_CC reflected_VVD more_RRR on_II those_DD2 who_PNQS participated_VVD in_II them_PPHO2 than_CSN on_II the_AT society_NN1 in_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 took_VVD place_NN1 :_: '_GE The_AT sound_NN1 which_DDQ law_NN1 abiding_VVG people_NN in_II Handsworth_NP1 heard_VVD on_II Monday_NPD1 night_NNT1 ,_, the_AT echoes_NN2 of_IO which_DDQ I_PPIS1 picked_VVD up_RP on_II Tuesday_NPD1 ,_, was_VBDZ not_XX a_AT1 cry_NN1 for_IF help_NN1 but_CCB a_AT1 cry_NN1 for_IF loot_NN1 '_GE (_( Financial_JJ Times_NNT2 ,_, 13_MC September_NPM1 1985_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT Chief_NN1 Constable_NN1 for_IF the_AT West_NP1 Midlands_NP2 ,_, Geoffrey_NP1 Dear_JJ ,_, took_VVD this_DD1 argument_NN1 further_RRR by_II pointing_VVG out_RP that_CST the_AT day_NNT1 before_II the_AT riots_NN2 a_AT1 successful_JJ carnival_NN1 had_VHD taken_VVN place_NN1 ,_, with_IW the_AT support_NN1 of_IO local_JJ community_NN1 leaders_NN2 ._. 
He_PPHS1 drew_VVD the_AT conclusion_NN1 from_II this_DD1 that_CST the_AT riot_NN1 '_GE came_VVD like_II a_AT1 bolt_NN1 out_II21 of_II22 the_AT blue_NN1 '_GE (_( Guardian_NN1 ,_, 21_MC November_NPM1 1985_MC )_) ._. 
Such_DA language_NN1 focused_VVD attention_NN1 on_II the_AT individuals_NN2 or_CC groups_NN2 who_PNQS were_VBDR '_GE breaking_VVG the_AT law_NN1 '_GE ,_, '_GE committing_VVG criminal_JJ acts_NN2 '_GE ,_, and_CC threatening_VVG the_AT interests_NN2 of_IO the_AT law-abiding_NN1 '_GE majority_NN1 '_GE ._. 
SYMBOLIC_JJ POLITICS_NN1 AND_CC POLICY_NN1 INITIATIVES_NN2 The_AT 19801_MC and_CC 1985_MC riots_NN2 resulted_VVN in_II a_AT1 wide_JJ variety_NN1 of_IO responsive_JJ measures_NN2 ,_, emanating_VVG from_II both_DB2 central_JJ and_CC local_JJ government_NN1 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 other_JJ agencies_NN2 ._. 
The_AT very_JJ multiplicity_NN1 of_IO ideological_JJ constructions_NN2 of_IO the_AT riots_NN2 is_VBZ an_AT1 indication_NN1 of_IO the_AT complexity_NN1 of_IO the_AT responses_NN2 which_DDQ resulted_VVD in_II policies_NN2 and_CC programmes_NN2 of_IO action_NN1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR ,_, however_RR ,_, three_MC analytically_RR distinct_JJ and_CC important_JJ political_JJ and_CC policy_NN1 responses_NN2 which_DDQ need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI examined_VVN :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) the_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 ;_; (_( b_ZZ1 )_) policing_NN1 and_CC law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 (_( c_ZZ1 )_) economic_JJ and_CC social_JJ policies_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 In_II the_AT aftermath_NN1 of_IO the_AT April_NPM1 1981_MC riots_NN2 in_II Brixton_NP1 the_AT Home_NN1 Secretary_NN1 ,_, William_NP1 Whitelaw_NP1 ,_, used_VVD his_APPGE powers_NN2 under_II the_AT 1964_MC Police_NN2 Act_VV0 to_TO appoint_VVI Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 to_TO inquire_VVI into_II the_AT events_NN2 ,_, produce_VV0 a_AT1 report_NN1 ,_, and_CC make_VV0 recommendations_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 brief_NN1 was_VBDZ subsequently_RR widened_VVN to_TO cover_VVI the_AT occurrence_NN1 of_IO other_JJ disturbances_NN2 during_II July_NPM1 1981_MC ._. 
Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 's_GE inquiry_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX on_II the_AT same_DA scale_NN1 as_CSA the_AT famous_JJ Kerner_NP1 Report_NN1 in_II 1968_MC on_II the_AT US_NP1 riots_NN2 ,_, but_CCB since_CS the_AT publication_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE Report_NN1 in_II November_NPM1 1981_MC his_APPGE views_NN2 and_CC prescriptions_NN2 have_VH0 played_VVN an_AT1 important_JJ role_NN1 in_II fashioning_VVG political_JJ debate_NN1 about_II the_AT riots_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ therefore_RR important_JJ to_TO look_VVI into_II the_AT basic_JJ analysis_NN1 which_DDQ the_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 puts_VVZ forward_RL in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO understand_VVI how_RRQ the_AT political_JJ agenda_NN1 has_VHZ developed_VVN ,_, in_II31 response_II32 to_II33 the_AT riots_NN2 ,_, since_II 1980_MC ._. 
The_AT starting-point_NN1 of_IO Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 's_GE explanation_NN1 of_IO the_AT riots_NN2 is_VBZ important_JJ ._. 
His_APPGE analysis_NN1 began_VVD by_II distinguishing_VVG between_II the_AT background_NN1 factors_NN2 which_DDQ had_VHD created_VVN the_AT potential_NN1 for_IF urban_JJ disorder_NN1 in_II areas_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 Brixton_NP1 and_CC the_AT precipitating_JJ action_NN1 or_CC event_NN1 which_DDQ sparked_VVD off_RP the_AT riots_NN2 ._. 
Scarman_NN1 identified_VVN two_MC views_NN2 that_CST were_VBDR commonly_RR held_VVN as_II21 to_II22 the_AT causation_NN1 of_IO the_AT disorders_NN2 ._. 
The_AT first_MD explained_VVD them_PPHO2 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 oppressive_JJ policing_NN1 ,_, and_CC in_RR21 particular_RR22 the_AT harassment_NN1 of_IO young_JJ blacks_NN2 ._. 
The_AT second_MD explained_VVD them_PPHO2 as_II a_AT1 protest_NN1 against_II society_NN1 by_II deprived_JJ people_NN who_PNQS saw_VVD violent_JJ attacks_NN2 upon_II the_AT forces_NN2 of_IO law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO calling_VVG attention_NN1 to_II their_APPGE grievances_NN2 ._. 
For_IF Scarman_NP1 both_DB2 views_NN2 were_VBDR a_AT1 simplification_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 complex_JJ reality_NN1 ,_, or_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 '_" not_XX the_AT whole_JJ truth_NN1 '_GE ._. 
He_PPHS1 linked_VVD the_AT '_GE social_JJ '_GE and_CC '_GE policing_NN1 '_GE aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT complex_JJ reality_NN1 of_IO areas_NN2 like_II Brixton_NP1 in_II an_AT1 analytic_JJ model_NN1 which_DDQ emphasized_VVD the_AT following_JJ issues_NN2 :_: 1._MC the_AT problems_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR faced_VVN in_II policing_NN1 and_CC maintaining_VVG order_NN1 in_II deprived_JJ ,_, inner-city_JJ ,_, multi-racial_JJ localities_NN2 ;_; 2._MC the_AT social_JJ ,_, economic_JJ ,_, and_CC related_JJ problems_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR faced_VVN by_II all_DB residents_NN2 of_IO such_DA areas_NN2 ;_; 3._MC the_AT social_JJ and_CC economic_JJ disadvantages_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR suffered_VVN particularly_RR by_II black_JJ residents_NN2 ,_, especially_RR young_JJ blacks_NN2 ._. 
(_( Scarman_NN1 ,_, 1981_MC ,_, paras._NNU 2._MC 12.38_MC )_) He_PPHS1 saw_VVD the_AT existence_NN1 of_IO all_DB these_DD2 features_NN2 in_II certain_JJ deprived_JJ areas_NN2 as_58 '_GE creating_VVG a_AT1 predisposition_NN1 towards_II violent_JJ protest_NN1 '_GE ,_, which_DDQ could_VM be_VBI sparked_VVN off_RP by_II incidents_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 confrontations_NN2 between_II local_JJ residents_NN2 and_CC the_AT police_NN2 or_CC by_II rumours_NN2 about_II the_AT actions_NN2 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 or_CC other_JJ authority_NN1 figures_NN2 ._. 
From_II this_DD1 account_NN1 Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 drew_VVD the_AT conclusion_NN1 that_CST once_CS the_AT '_GE predisposition_NN1 towards_II violent_JJ protest_NN1 '_GE had_VHD taken_VVN hold_VV0 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ difficult_JJ to_TO reverse_VVI ._. 
Talking_VVG about_II the_AT position_NN1 of_IO young_JJ blacks_NN2 ,_, he_PPHS1 noted_VVD that_CST because_CS they_PPHS2 felt_VVD neither_RR '_GE socially_RR nor_CC economically_RR secure_JJ '_GE many_DA2 of_IO them_PPHO2 had_VHD drifted_VVN into_II situations_NN2 where_RRQ more_RGR or_CC less_RGR regular_JJ confrontations_NN2 with_IW the_AT police_NN2 were_VBDR the_AT norm_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE daily_JJ experience_NN1 ._. 
Noting_VVG that_CST despite_II the_AT evidence_NN1 of_IO academic_JJ and_CC government_NN1 reports_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ had_VHD pointed_VVN to_II widespread_JJ discrimination_NN1 against_II young_JJ blacks_NN2 ,_, very_RG little_DA1 had_VHD been_VBN done_VDN to_TO remedy_VVI the_AT position_NN1 ,_, Scarman_NP1 concluded_VVD that_CST :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) many_DA2 young_JJ blacks_NN2 believed_VVD that_DD1 violence_NN1 was_VBDZ an_AT1 effective_JJ means_NN of_IO protest_NN1 against_II their_APPGE conditions_NN2 ;_; and_CC (_( b_ZZ1 )_) far_RR from_II the_AT riots_NN2 being_VBG a_AT1 meaningless_JJ event_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 were_VBDR '_GE essentially_RR an_AT1 outburst_NN1 of_IO anger_NN1 and_CC resentment_NN1 by_II young_JJ black_JJ people_NN against_II the_AT police_NN2 '_GE (_( Scarman_NP1 ,_, 1981_MC ,_, paras._NNU 3._MC 110_MC and_CC 2.38_MC )_) ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ important_JJ to_TO note_VVI here_RL is_VBZ that_CST aside_II21 from_II22 Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 's_GE condemnation_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE criminal_JJ acts_NN2 '_GE committed_JJ during_II the_AT riots_NN2 ,_, the_AT Report_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 strong_JJ argument_NN1 in_II31 favour_II32 of_II33 a_AT1 historical_JJ and_CC social_JJ explanation_NN1 of_IO the_AT riots_NN2 ._. 
Given_VVN the_AT close_JJ link_NN1 which_DDQ the_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 established_VVN between_II questions_NN2 of_IO policing_NN1 and_CC the_AT '_GE wider_JJR social_JJ context_NN1 '_GE ,_, the_AT programme_NN1 of_IO action_NN1 which_DDQ it_PPH1 outlined_VVD contained_JJ proposals_NN2 not_XX only_RR about_II the_AT reform_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 and_CC the_AT introduction_NN1 of_IO new_JJ methods_NN2 of_IO policing_NN1 and_CC riot_NN1 control_NN1 ,_, but_CCB about_II employment_NN1 policy_NN1 ,_, social_JJ policy_NN1 ,_, and_CC policies_NN2 on_II racial_JJ discrimination_NN1 ._. 
In_II a_AT1 telling_JJ phrase_NN1 Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 argued_VVD :_: '_GE The_AT social_JJ conditions_NN2 in_II Brixton_NP1 do_VD0 not_XX provide_VVI an_AT1 excuse_NN1 for_IF disorder_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB the_AT disorders_NN2 can_VM not_XX be_VBI fully_RR understood_VVN unless_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR seen_VVN in_II the_AT context_NN1 of_IO complex_JJ political_JJ ,_, social_JJ and_CC economic_JJ factors_NN2 which_DDQ together_RL create_VV0 a_AT1 predisposition_NN1 towards_II violent_JJ protest_NN1 '_GE (_( para_NN1 ._. 
8.7_MC )_) ._. 
Although_CS some_DD of_IO these_DD2 issues_NN2 went_VVD beyond_II the_AT main_JJ remit_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE Inquiry_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 drew_VVD the_AT conclusion_NN1 from_II this_DD1 basic_JJ finding_NN1 that_CST only_RR a_AT1 national_JJ government-led_JJ initiative_NN1 to_TO deal_VVI with_IW problems_NN2 of_IO policing_NN1 ,_, unemployment_NN1 ,_, poor_JJ housing_NN1 ,_, and_CC racial_JJ disadvantage_NN1 could_VM get_VVI to_II the_AT roots_NN2 of_IO the_AT unrest_NN1 ._. 
Parliamentary_JJ and_CC media_NN responses_NN2 to_II the_AT Report_NN1 varied_VVD greatly_RR ,_, although_CS it_PPH1 was_VBDZ widely_RR seen_VVN as_CSA making_VVG an_AT1 important_JJ contribution_NN1 to_II the_AT debate_NN1 about_II how_RRQ to_TO respond_VVI to_II the_AT riots_NN2 and_CC prevent_VVI the_AT outbreak_NN1 of_IO violence_NN1 in_II the_AT future_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB what_DDQ became_VVD clear_JJ after_II the_AT immediate_JJ debate_NN1 on_II the_AT Report_NN1 in_II late_JJ 1981_MC and_CC early_RR 1982_MC ,_, was_VBDZ that_CST the_AT Government_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX going_VVGK to_TO implement_VVI all_DB the_AT recommendations_NN2 ._. 
Some_DD aspects_NN2 of_IO its_APPGE proposals_NN2 for_IF reforming_VVG the_AT police_NN2 and_CC rethinking_VVG police_NN2 tactics_NN2 were_VBDR implemented_VVN during_II 1982_MC and_CC 1983_MC ,_, but_CCB evidence_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE urgent_JJ action_NN1 '_GE which_DDQ it_PPH1 called_VVD for_IF in_II other_JJ areas_NN2 remained_VVD difficult_JJ to_TO find_VVI ._. 
This_DD1 returns_VVZ us_PPIO2 to_II the_AT earlier_JJR point_NN1 about_II the_AT other_JJ major_JJ forces_NN2 which_DDQ contributed_VVD to_II the_AT development_NN1 of_IO political_JJ responses_NN2 to_II the_AT riots_NN2 :_: namely_REX the_AT media_NN ,_, Parliament_NN1 ,_, the_AT political_JJ parties_NN2 ,_, and_CC popular_JJ '_GE common-sense_NN1 '_GE debate_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 formed_VVD a_AT1 part_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 vital_JJ one_PN1 of_IO this_DD1 process_NN1 of_IO political_JJ debate_NN1 ,_, but_CCB its_APPGE role_NN1 can_VM not_XX be_VBI understood_VVN in_II isolation_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN if_CS we_PPIS2 look_VV0 more_RGR closely_RR at_II the_AT issues_NN2 of_IO policing_NN1 and_CC economic_JJ and_CC social_JJ problems_NN2 ._. 
Policing_NN1 and_CC law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 Indeed_RR ,_, in_II the_AT aftermath_NN1 of_IO the_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 's_GE publication_NN1 ,_, police_NN2 opinion_NN1 was_VBDZ divided_VVN on_II the_AT question_NN1 of_IO whether_CSW its_APPGE proposals_NN2 for_IF reforming_VVG the_AT police_NN2 and_CC the_AT adoption_NN1 of_IO new_JJ methods_NN2 of_IO policing_NN1 could_VM be_VBI implemented_VVN ,_, or_CC whether_CSW such_DA changes_NN2 could_VM insure_VVI against_II further_JJR violence_NN1 and_CC unrest_NN1 ._. 
The_AT policy_NN1 responses_NN2 after_II the_AT 1985_MC riots_NN2 show_VV0 some_DD of_IO the_AT same_DA characteristics_NN2 as_CSA those_DD2 during_II 19801_MC ,_, but_CCB as_CSA argued_VVN earlier_RRR ,_, the_AT emphasis_NN1 on_II the_AT '_GE criminality_NN1 '_GE of_IO the_AT riot_NN1 participants_NN2 favoured_JJ explanations_NN2 that_CST linked_JJ disorder_NN1 to_II the_AT pathological_JJ characteristics_NN2 of_IO inner-city_JJ residents_NN2 which_DDQ pushed_VVD them_PPHO2 towards_II lawlessness_NN1 and_CC crime_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 in_II turn_NN1 produced_VVD a_AT1 sharper_JJR contrast_NN1 than_CSN in_II 19801_MC between_II (_( a_ZZ1 )_) responses_NN2 which_DDQ emphasized_VVD the_AT need_NN1 to_TO strengthen_VVI and_CC buttress_VVI the_AT role_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 ,_, and_CC (_( b_ZZ1 )_) responses_NN2 which_DDQ called_VVD for_IF greater_JJR emphasis_NN1 on_II the_AT rejuvenation_NN1 of_IO the_AT social_JJ and_CC economic_JJ fabric_NN1 of_IO the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 ._. 
Economic_JJ and_CC social_JJ policies_NN2 In_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 economic_JJ and_CC social_JJ policies_NN2 the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO the_AT 19801_MC riots_NN2 was_VBDZ equally_RR ambiguous_JJ and_CC contradictory_JJ ._. 
Part_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 ambiguity_NN1 ,_, as_CSA outlined_VVN above_RL ,_, resulted_VVN from_II the_AT Government_NN1 's_GE strenuous_JJ efforts_NN2 to_TO deny_VVI any_DD link_NN1 between_II its_APPGE policies_NN2 and_CC the_AT outbreak_NN1 of_IO violence_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 denial_NN1 was_VBDZ particularly_RR important_JJ ,_, since_CS at_II the_AT time_NNT1 the_AT Thatcher_NP1 administration_NN1 was_VBDZ going_VVG through_II a_AT1 bad_JJ period_NN1 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 popular_JJ opinion_NN1 on_II issues_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 unemployment_NN1 ,_, social_JJ services_NN2 ,_, and_CC housing_NN1 ._. 
While_CS Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 was_VBDZ careful_JJ not_XX to_TO enter_VVI the_AT political_JJ dispute_NN1 between_II the_AT Government_NN1 and_CC the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 on_II issues_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 unemployment_NN1 and_CC housing_NN1 ,_, his_APPGE call_NN1 for_IF more_RGR direct_JJ action_NN1 to_TO deal_VVI with_IW these_DD2 problems_NN2 ,_, along_II21 with_II22 racial_JJ disadvantage_NN1 ,_, posed_VVD a_AT1 challenge_NN1 to_II the_AT political_JJ legitimacy_NN1 of_IO the_AT policies_NN2 which_DDQ the_AT Government_NN1 had_VHD followed_VVN from_II 1979_MC onwards_RL ._. 
It_PPH1 also_RR posed_VVD a_AT1 delicate_JJ problem_NN1 for_IF the_AT Home_NN1 Secretary_NN1 himself_PPX1 ,_, since_CS Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 had_VHD been_VBN appointed_VVN by_II him_PPHO1 to_TO carry_VVI out_RP his_APPGE Inquiry_NN1 ._. 
Having_VHG spent_VVN the_AT whole_JJ summer_NNT1 denying_VVG any_DD link_NN1 between_II its_APPGE policies_NN2 and_CC the_AT riots_NN2 ,_, the_AT Government_NN1 had_VHD to_TO tread_VVI warily_RR in_II responding_VVG to_II the_AT economic_JJ and_CC social_JJ policy_NN1 proposals_NN2 of_IO the_AT Scarman_NN1 Report_NN1 when_CS it_PPH1 was_VBDZ published_VVN in_II November_NPM1 1981_MC ._. 
The_AT parliamentary_JJ debate_NN1 on_II the_AT Report_NN1 showed_VVD the_AT Home_NN1 Secretary_NN1 adopting_VVG a_AT1 two-pronged_JJ strategy_NN1 in_II his_APPGE response_NN1 ._. 
First_MD ,_, he_PPHS1 accepted_VVD many_DA2 of_IO the_AT recommendations_NN2 of_IO the_AT Report_NN1 ,_, particularly_RR in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 the_AT role_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 ._. 
Additionally_RR ,_, he_PPHS1 accepted_VVD the_AT need_NN1 to_TO tackle_VVI racial_JJ disadvantage_NN1 and_CC other_JJ social_JJ issues_NN2 ._. 
Second_MD ,_, he_PPHS1 emphasized_VVD the_AT Government_NN1 's_GE view_NN1 that_CST ,_, whatever_DDQV broader_JJR measures_NN2 were_VBDR taken_VVN to_TO deal_VVI with_IW racial_JJ and_CC social_JJ inequalities_NN2 ,_, the_AT immediate_JJ priority_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO restore_VVI and_CC maintain_VVI order_NN1 on_II the_AT streets_NN2 ._. 
When_CS the_AT Home_NN1 Secretary_NN1 talked_VVN of_IO the_AT need_NN1 for_IF the_AT Government_NN1 to_TO give_VVI a_AT1 lead_NN1 in_II tackling_VVG racial_JJ disadvantage_NN1 he_PPHS1 therefore_RR saw_VVD this_DD1 as_CSA in_II issue_NN1 for_IF the_AT longer_JJR term_NN1 ._. 
On_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ much_RR more_RGR specific_JJ about_II the_AT reform_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 and_CC the_AT development_NN1 of_IO new_JJ tactics_NN2 and_CC equipment_NN1 for_IF the_AT management_NN1 of_IO urban_JJ disorder_NN1 (_( Hansard_NP1 ,_, vol._NNU 14_MC ,_, 10_MC December_NPM1 1981_MC :_: cols._NNU 10018_MC )_) ._. 
In_II 1985_MC ,_, however_RR ,_, the_AT Government_NN1 specifically_RR rejected_VVN calls_NN2 for_IF another_DD1 inquiry_NN1 like_II Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 's_GE ,_, arguing_VVG that_CST since_CS the_AT riots_NN2 were_VBDR a_AT1 '_GE criminal_JJ enterprise_NN1 '_GE it_PPH1 was_VBDZ useless_JJ to_TO search_VVI for_IF social_JJ explanations_NN2 or_CC to_TO have_VHI yet_RR another_DD1 report_NN1 advising_VVG it_PPH1 about_II what_DDQ to_TO do_VDI ._. 
Implicitly_RR ,_, the_AT Government_NN1 was_VBDZ saying_VVG that_CST it_PPH1 knew_VVD what_DDQ the_AT problems_NN2 were_VBDR ,_, and_CC how_RRQ they_PPHS2 could_VM be_VBI tackled_VVN ._. 
While_CS some_DD senior_JJ policemen_NN2 ,_, like_II Metropolitan_JJ Police_NN2 Commissioner_NN1 Sir_NNB Kenneth_NP1 Newman_NP1 ,_, wanted_VVD to_TO stress_VVI the_AT link_NN1 between_II the_AT police_NN2 and_CC other_JJ areas_NN2 of_IO '_GE social_JJ policy_NN1 '_GE (_( Metropolitan_JJ Police_NN2 ,_, 1986_MC )_) ,_, the_AT official_JJ government_NN1 response_NN1 attempted_VVD to_TO decontextualize_VVI the_AT riots_NN2 and_CC see_VVI them_PPHO2 as_II the_AT actions_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 small_JJ minority_NN1 who_PNQS were_VBDR either_RR criminalized_VVN or_CC influenced_VVN by_II extreme_JJ political_JJ ideas_NN2 ._. 
The_AT dominant_JJ approach_NN1 of_IO the_AT Government_NN1 attempted_VVD to_TO emphasize_VVI two_MC main_JJ arguments._NNU 1._MC that_CST the_AT riots_NN2 were_VBDR '_GE a_AT1 lust_NN1 for_IF blood_NN1 '_GE ,_, an_AT1 '_GE orgy_NN1 of_IO thieving_NN1 '_GE ,_, '_GE a_AT1 cry_NN1 for_IF loot_NN1 and_CC not_XX a_AT1 cry_NN1 for_IF help_NN1 '_GE ;_; 2._MC that_CST the_AT riots_NN2 did_VDD not_XX reflect_VVI a_AT1 failure_NN1 to_TO carry_VVI out_RP the_AT '_GE urgent_JJ programme_NN1 of_IO action_NN1 '_GE recommended_JJ by_II Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 in_II 1981_MC ,_, but_CCB were_VBDR the_AT outcome_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 spiralling_JJ wave_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 in_II inner-city_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
The_AT logic_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 approach_NN1 ,_, articulated_VVN by_II Home_NN1 Secretary_NN1 Douglas_NP1 Hurd_NP1 most_RGT clearly_RR ,_, was_VBDZ that_CST the_AT riots_NN2 were_VBDR both_RR '_GE unjustifiable_JJ '_GE and_CC a_AT1 '_GE criminal_JJ activity_NN1 '_GE ._. 
In_II a_AT1 widely_RR reported_VVN speech_NN1 to_II police_NN2 chiefs_NN2 at_II the_AT time_NNT1 of_IO the_AT disorders_NN2 Hurd_NP1 made_VVD this_DD1 point_NN1 clear_JJ :_: Handsworth_NP1 needs_VVZ more_DAR jobs_NN2 and_CC better_JJR housing_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB riots_VVZ only_RR destroy_VV0 ._. 
They_PPHS2 create_VV0 nothing_PN1 except_II a_AT1 climate_NN1 in_II which_DDQ necessary_JJ development_NN1 is_VBZ even_RR more_RGR difficult_JJ ._. 
Poor_JJ housing_NN1 and_CC other_JJ social_JJ ills_NN2 provide_VV0 no_AT kind_NN1 of_IO reason_NN1 for_IF riot_NN1 ,_, arson_NN1 and_CC killing_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 interviewer_NN1 asked_VVD me_PPIO1 whether_CSW the_AT riot_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX a_AT1 cry_NN1 for_IF help_NN1 by_II the_AT rioters_NN2 ._. 
The_AT sound_NN1 which_DDQ law-abiding_JJ people_NN heard_VVN at_II Handsworth_NP1 was_VBDZ not_XX a_AT1 cry_NN1 for_IF help_NN1 but_CCB a_AT1 cry_NN1 for_IF loot_NN1 ._. 
That_DD1 is_VBZ why_RRQ the_AT first_MD priority_NN1 ,_, once_RR public_JJ order_NN1 is_VBZ secure_JJ ,_, must_VM be_VBI a_AT1 thorough_JJ and_CC relentless_JJ investigation_NN1 into_II the_AT crimes_NN2 which_DDQ were_VBDR committed_VVN ._. 
(_( Daily_JJ Telegraph_NN1 ,_, 14_MC September_NPM1 1985_MC )_) Such_DA arguments_NN2 resonated_VVD through_II the_AT media_NN and_CC in_II the_AT various_JJ parliamentary_JJ debates_NN2 during_II September_NPM1 and_CC October_NPM1 1985_MC ._. 
They_PPHS2 became_VVD part_NN1 of_IO the_AT symbolic_JJ political_JJ language_NN1 through_II which_DDQ the_AT riots_NN2 were_VBDR understood_VVN by_II policy_NN1 makers_NN2 and_CC by_II popular_JJ opinion_NN1 ._. 
Since_CS the_AT 1985_MC unrest_NN1 ,_, and_CC particularly_RR after_II the_AT 1987_MC General_JJ Election_NN1 ,_, the_AT Government_NN1 has_VHZ announced_VVN a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO initiatives_NN2 on_II the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 has_VHZ presented_VVN these_DD2 as_II part_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 effort_NN1 to_TO rejuvenate_VVI depressed_JJ areas_NN2 on_II a_AT1 sound_NN1 basis_NN1 ._. 
The_AT evidence_NN1 that_CST has_VHZ emerged_VVN since_II then_RT ,_, however_RR ,_, points_VVZ to_II a_AT1 major_JJ discrepancy_NN1 between_II the_AT Government_NN1 's_GE promises_NN2 of_IO action_NN1 and_CC the_AT allocation_NN1 of_IO resources_NN2 to_TO implement_VVI them_PPHO2 (_( Robson_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC )_) ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ perhaps_RR too_RG early_JJ to_TO reach_VVI a_AT1 conclusion_NN1 on_II this_DD1 point_NN1 ,_, but_CCB a_AT1 repeat_NN1 of_IO the_AT period_NN1 of_IO inaction_NN1 between_II 1982_MC and_CC 1985_MC seems_VVZ to_TO be_VBI evident_JJ ,_, within_II the_AT current_JJ political_JJ context_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO local_JJ authorities_NN2 have_VH0 attempted_VVN to_TO take_VVI more_RGR positive_JJ action_NN1 to_TO deal_VVI with_IW the_AT issues_NN2 raised_VVN by_II the_AT 1985_MC riots_NN2 ,_, but_CCB their_APPGE experience_NN1 has_VHZ shown_VVN that_CST such_DA local_JJ initiatives_NN2 are_VBR often_RR severely_RR limited_VVN by_II the_AT actions_NN2 of_IO national_JJ government_NN1 ,_, the_AT police_NN2 ,_, and_CC broader_JJR economic_JJ and_CC political_JJ pressures_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT years_NNT2 since_II 1981_MC the_AT one_MC1 consistent_JJ response_NN1 to_II urban_JJ unrest_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT provision_NN1 of_IO more_DAR resources_NN2 ,_, more_DAR training_NN1 ,_, and_CC more_DAR equipment_NN1 to_II the_AT police_NN2 ._. 
Instead_II21 of_II22 tackling_VVG the_AT causes_NN2 of_IO urban_JJ unrest_NN1 ,_, the_AT Government_NN1 has_VHZ built_VVN up_RP force_NN1 to_TO deal_VVI with_IW the_AT manifestation_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 root_NN1 conditions_NN2 ._. 
Increasingly_RR the_AT most_RGT strident_JJ political_JJ voices_NN2 are_VBR raised_VVN in_II the_AT name_NN1 of_IO free_JJ enterprise_NN1 and_CC law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 ,_, not_XX for_IF equity_NN1 and_CC social_JJ justice_NN1 ._. 
For_IF the_AT New_JJ Right_NN1 and_CC other_JJ influential_JJ sectors_NN2 of_IO political_JJ opinion_NN1 the_AT attempt_NN1 to_TO achieve_VVI racial_JJ equality_NN1 through_II legal_JJ and_CC political_JJ means_NN is_VBZ at_RR21 best_RR22 nave_NN1 political_JJ folly_NN1 ,_, and_CC at_RR21 worst_RR22 a_AT1 restriction_NN1 on_II the_AT workings_NN2 of_IO the_AT market_NN1 ._. 
The_AT present_JJ political_JJ climate_NN1 gives_VVZ little_DA1 cause_NN1 for_IF optimism_NN1 that_CST a_AT1 radical_JJ change_NN1 in_II governmental_JJ priorities_NN2 in_II this_DD1 field_NN1 is_VBZ likely_JJ (_( Solomos_NP1 ,_, 1989_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT Government_NN1 's_GE plan_NN1 of_IO Action_NN1 for_IF Cities_NN2 (_( DoE_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ,_, issued_VVN after_II Mrs_NNB Thatcher_NP1 's_GE post-election_JJ promise_NN1 ,_, says_VVZ very_RG little_DA1 directly_RR about_II racial_JJ inequality_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 remains_VVZ to_TO be_VBI seen_VVN whether_CSW it_PPH1 will_VM suffer_VVI the_AT fate_NN1 of_IO numerous_JJ other_JJ initiatives_NN2 on_II the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 and_CC fade_VV0 into_II obscurity_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB one_MC1 thing_NN1 seems_VVZ clear_JJ :_: during_II the_AT past_JJ decade_NNT1 the_AT Government_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN more_RGR intent_JJ on_II reducing_VVG the_AT powers_NN2 of_IO local_JJ authorities_NN2 than_CSN on_II providing_VVG for_IF fundamental_JJ changes_NN2 in_II the_AT social_JJ conditions_NN2 of_IO the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 ._. 
CONCLUSION_NN1 :_: LITTLE_DA1 ROOM_NN1 FOR_IF OPTIMISM_NN1 Despite_II the_AT Government_NN1 's_VBZ recently_RR proclaimed_VVN intention_NN1 of_IO regenerating_VVG the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ little_DA1 room_NN1 for_IF optimism_NN1 ._. 
Unless_CS radical_JJ action_NN1 is_VBZ taken_VVN ,_, British_JJ cities_NN2 seem_VV0 poised_VVN to_TO become_VVI yet_RR more_RGR turbulent_JJ ,_, brutalized_VVD ,_, and_CC trouble-torn_NN1 ._. 
The_AT excluded_JJ black_JJ and_CC white_JJ citizens_NN2 in_II the_AT urban_JJ areas_NN2 seem_VV0 set_VV0 to_TO continue_VVI to_TO suffer_VVI deprivation_NN1 and_CC disadvantage_NN1 ._. 
The_AT remedy_NN1 of_IO using_VVG tough_JJ policing_NN1 is_VBZ merely_RR tackling_VVG the_AT symptoms_NN2 of_IO the_AT disorder_NN1 ,_, and_CC is_VBZ liable_JJ to_TO exacerbate_VVI the_AT underlying_JJ malaise_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 approach_NN1 should_VM come_VVI as_II no_AT surprise_NN1 ,_, however_RR ._. 
History_NN1 shows_VVZ that_CST the_AT usual_JJ response_NN1 to_II violent_JJ protest_NN1 and_CC riots_NN2 was_VBDZ repression_NN1 ._. 
History_NN1 also_RR shows_VVZ that_CST this_DD1 course_NN1 was_VBDZ normally_RR ineffective_JJ and_CC that_DD1 disorder_NN1 only_RR diminished_VVN when_CS movement_NN1 was_VBDZ made_VVN in_II the_AT direction_NN1 of_IO the_AT reforms_NN2 which_DDQ were_VBDR demanded_VVN ._. 
The_AT auguries_NN2 for_IF such_DA reforms_NN2 are_VBR not_XX good_JJ ,_, and_CC further_RRR urban_JJ unrest_NN1 remains_VVZ in_II prospect_NN1 ._. 
'_GE Crime_NN1 and_CC Policing_VVG ROBERT_NP1 REINER_NN1 FULL_JJ CIRCLE_NN1 ?_? 
On_II 13_MC May_NPM1 1833_MC the_AT National_JJ Political_JJ Union_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 body_NN1 organized_VVD to_TO seek_VVI the_AT extension_NN1 of_IO the_AT franchise_NN1 to_II the_AT working_JJ class_NN1 ,_, held_VVD a_AT1 meeting_NN1 in_II Coldbath_NP1 Fields_NN2 ,_, in_II Clerkenwell_NP1 ,_, London_NP1 ._. 
This_DD1 was_VBDZ to_TO become_VVI a_AT1 celebrated_JJ and_CC controversial_JJ rite_NN1 of_IO passage_NN1 for_IF the_AT new_JJ Metropolitan_JJ Police_NN2 ,_, then_RT not_XX quite_RG four_MC years_NNT2 old_JJ ._. 
Fighting_NN1 broke_VVD out_RP between_II participants_NN2 and_CC the_AT police_NN2 ,_, during_II which_DDQ a_AT1 constable_NN1 ,_, PC_NN1 Culley_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ fatally_RR stabbed_VVN ._. 
An_AT1 inquest_NN1 jury_NN1 ,_, rapidly_RR assemble_VV0 in_II a_AT1 nearby_JJ inn_NN1 ,_, returned_VVD a_AT1 verdict_NN1 of_IO '_GE justifiable_JJ homicide_NN1 '_GE ._. 
This_DD1 was_VBDZ quashed_VVN on_II appeal_NN1 to_II the_AT Court_NN1 of_IO King_NN1 's_GE Bench_NN1 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 symbolized_VVD the_AT deep_JJ and_CC widespread_JJ popular_JJ suspicion_NN1 which_DDQ attended_VVD the_AT birth_NN1 of_IO Peel_NP1 's_GE '_GE New_JJ Police_NN2 '_GE ._. 
For_IF the_AT conventional_JJ '_GE cop-sided_NN1 '_GE histories_NN2 of_IO British_JJ police_NN2 development_NN1 ,_, Coldbath_NP1 Fields_NN2 marks_VVZ the_AT crucial_JJ turning-point_NN1 in_II their_APPGE battle_NN1 to_TO win_VVI consent_NN1 for_IF their_APPGE very_JJ existence_NN1 ._. 
From_II the_AT middle_NN1 of_IO the_AT eighteenth_MD century_NNT1 onwards_RR a_AT1 growing_JJ chorus_NN1 of_IO voices_NN2 had_VHD championed_VVN the_AT creation_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 professional_JJ police_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB they_PPHS2 were_VBDR successfully_RR resisted_VVN by_II a_AT1 rejectionist_NN1 front_NN1 which_DDQ encompassed_VVD a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO social_JJ interests_NN2 and_CC philosophies_NN2 ,_, ranging_VVG from_II rural_JJ Tory_JJ gentry_NN to_II urban_JJ working-class_JJ radicals_NN2 ._. 
Upper-class_JJ objectors_NN2 worried_VVN about_II traditional_JJ civil_JJ liberties_NN2 ,_, central_JJ government_NN1 encroachment_NN1 on_II the_AT delicate_JJ network_NN1 of_IO power_NN1 relations_NN2 in_II local_JJ parishes_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT expense_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 public_JJ police_NN2 ._. 
Working-class_JJ hostility_NN1 was_VBDZ roused_VVN by_II the_AT fear_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 being_VBG used_VVN to_TO control_VVI industrial_JJ and_CC political_JJ organization_NN1 ,_, and_CC to_TO curb_VVI their_APPGE recreational_JJ activities_NN2 under_II the_AT guise_NN1 of_IO maintaining_VVG public_JJ order_NN1 in_II the_AT streets_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 alliance_NN1 of_IO opposition_NN1 frustrated_VVD all_DB attempts_NN2 to_TO establish_VVI a_AT1 professional_JJ police_NN2 until_CS Peel_NP1 's_GE 1829_MC Metropolitan_JJ Police_NN2 Act_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT conventional_JJ view_NN1 Coldbath_NN1 Fields_NN2 was_VBDZ a_AT1 shock_NN1 to_II respectable_JJ consciences_NN2 ,_, and_CC rallied_VVD the_AT support_NN1 of_IO all_DB but_II the_AT dangerous_JJ classes_NN2 to_II the_AT Peelers_NN2 ._. 
In_II fact_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, resistance_NN1 to_II the_AT new_JJ police_NN2 continued_VVD to_TO be_VBI expressed_VVN in_II the_AT street_NN1 violence_NN1 and_CC riots_NN2 as_58 '_GE the_AT plague_NN1 of_IO blue_JJ locusts_NN2 '_GE spread_NN1 throughout_II the_AT country_NN1 between_II 1829_MC and_CC 1856_MC ,_, and_CC in_RR21 particular_RR22 as_CSA it_PPH1 came_VVD to_II the_AT working_JJ class_NN1 communities_NN2 of_IO the_AT North_ND1 (_( Storch_NP1 ,_, 1975_MC ,_, p._NN1 94_MC )_) ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, working-class_JJ assent_NN1 to_II policing_NN1 has_VHZ arguably_RR always_RR been_VBN hesitant_JJ and_CC brittle_JJ (_( Cohen_NP1 ,_, 1979_MC ;_; Brogden_NP1 ,_, 1982_MC )_) ._. 
When_CS PC_NN1 Keith_NP1 Blakelock_NP1 was_VBDZ stabbed_VVN to_II death_NN1 on_II 6_MC October_NPM1 1985_MC during_II the_AT rioting_NN1 in_II the_AT Broadwater_JJR Farm_NN1 Estate_NN1 he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ the_AT first_MD Metropolitan_JJ policeman_NN1 to_TO be_VBI killed_VVN in_II a_AT1 riot_NN1 since_CS PC_NN1 Culley_NN1 in_II 1833_MC ._. 
The_AT parallel_NN1 with_IW Coldbath_NN1 Fields_NN2 dramatically_RR symbolizes_VVZ the_AT way_NN1 that_CST policing_NN1 ,_, crime_NN1 ,_, and_CC public_JJ order_NN1 have_VH0 turned_VVN full_JJ circle_NN1 back_RP to_TO echo_VVI early_RR Victorian_JJ conditions_NN2 ._. 
The_AT urban_JJ disorders_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1980s_MC2 are_VBR the_AT most_RGT explicit_JJ index_NN1 of_IO the_AT deep_JJ hostility_NN1 now_RT felt_VVD by_II many_DA2 inner-city_JJ residents_NN2 towards_II the_AT police_NN2 ,_, and_CC of_IO the_AT problems_NN2 of_IO policing_VVG the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 ._. 
Nor_CC are_VBR the_AT parallels_NN2 confined_VVN to_II the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 ._. 
Another_DD1 dramatic_JJ instance_NN1 of_IO historical_JJ dj_NNU vu_NN1 came_VVD during_II the_AT miners_NN2 '_GE strike_NN1 ,_, when_CS it_PPH1 was_VBDZ reported_VVN that_CST an_AT1 attack_NN1 had_VHD been_VBN made_VVN on_II the_AT police_NN2 station_NN1 in_II Malby_NP1 ,_, South_NP1 Yorkshire_NP1 ,_, scene_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 anti-police_NN2 riot_VV0 a_AT1 century_NNT1 earlier_RRR when_CS the_AT '_GE new_JJ police_NN2 '_GE first_MD arrived_VVD there_RL ._. 
More_RGR recently_RR a_AT1 moral_JJ panic_NN1 about_II '_GE lager_NN1 louts_NN2 '_GE despoiling_JJ rural_JJ Arcadias_NP2 has_VHZ emerged_VVN ._. 
What_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN rudely_RR shattered_VVN is_VBZ the_AT cosy_JJ depiction_NN1 of_IO British_JJ history_NN1 as_II the_AT progressive_NN1 '_GE conquest_NN1 of_IO violence_NN1 '_GE (_( Critchley_NP1 ,_, 1970_MC )_) which_DDQ is_VBZ celebrated_VVN in_II the_AT conventional_JJ accounts_NN2 of_IO the_AT British_JJ police_NN2 (_( Reith_NP1 ,_, 1938_MC ,_, 1943_MC ,_, 1956_MC ;_; Critchley_NP1 ,_, 1967_MC ;_; Ascoli_NP1 ,_, 1979_MC ;_; Stead_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC )_) ._. 
But_CCB if_CS the_AT long-term_JJ trajectory_NN1 of_IO '_GE law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 '_GE in_II Britain_NP1 is_VBZ not_XX the_AT unilinear_JJ march_NN1 of_IO civility_NN1 which_DDQ may_VM once_RR have_VHI seemed_VVN plausible_JJ ,_, what_DDQ is_VBZ it_PPH1 ?_? 
And_CC how_RRQ are_VBR we_PPIS2 to_TO understand_VVI and_CC deal_VVI with_IW the_AT contemporary_JJ return_NN1 of_IO the_AT repressed_JJ ,_, in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 spiralling_JJ levels_NN2 of_IO recorded_JJ crime_NN1 and_CC riotous_JJ disorder_NN1 ?_? 
In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 I_PPIS1 shall_VM try_VVI to_TO locate_VVI our_APPGE present_JJ concerns_NN2 in_II a_AT1 pattern_NN1 of_IO historical_JJ development_NN1 ,_, and_CC seek_VV0 to_TO excavate_VVI from_II this_DD1 a_AT1 prognosis_NN1 for_IF the_AT viability_NN1 of_IO current_JJ strategies_NN2 and_CC initiatives_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 CRISIS_NN1 OF_IO '_GE LAW_NN1 AND_CC ORDER_NN1 '_GE :_: MORAL_JJ PANIC_NN1 OR_CC REASONABLE_JJ CONCERN_NN1 ?_? 
In_II the_AT conventional_JJ view_NN1 ,_, Britain_NP1 ,_, once_RR a_AT1 legend_NN1 throughout_II the_AT world_NN1 for_IF its_APPGE stolid_JJ ,_, peaceable_JJ ,_, and_CC harmonious_JJ character_NN1 ,_, has_VHZ experienced_VVN in_II the_AT last_MD decade_NNT1 and_CC a_AT1 half_DB an_AT1 alien_NN1 and_CC shocking_JJ advent_NN1 of_IO unprecedented_JJ incivility_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 ._. 
At_II the_AT visible_JJ apex_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 trend_NN1 come_VV0 the_AT urban_JJ disorders_NN2 of_IO Brixton_NP1 and_CC Bristol_NP1 ,_, Toxteth_NP1 and_CC Tottenham_NP1 ._. 
Underneath_RL lies_VVZ the_AT more_RGR regular_JJ procession_NN1 of_IO smaller-scale_JJ crowd_NN1 disturbances_NN2 ,_, political_JJ ,_, industrial_JJ ,_, and_CC recreational_JJ ._. 
Even_RR less_RGR visible_JJ except_CS to_II immediate_JJ participants_NN2 and_CC police_NN2 is_VBZ the_AT routine_NN1 '_GE slow_JJ rioting_NN1 '_GE of_IO Saturday_NPD1 night_NNT1 street_NN1 brawling_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ (_( according_II21 to_II22 the_AT perceptions_NN2 of_IO all_DB the_AT chiefs_NN2 constables_NN2 I_PPIS1 have_VH0 interviewed_VVN in_II a_AT1 research_NN1 project_NN1 over_II the_AT last_MD year_NNT1 )_) is_VBZ assuming_VVG more_RGR menacing_JJ and_CC violent_JJ proportions_NN2 throughout_II the_AT country_NN1 ._. 
Beneath_II it_PPH1 all_DB is_VBZ a_AT1 growing_JJ wave_NN1 of_IO individual_JJ crimes_NN2 ,_, adding_VVG up_II21 to_II22 a_AT1 crisis_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 conventional_JJ view_NN1 is_VBZ summed_VVN up_RP by_II the_AT dominant_JJ reactions_NN2 to_II the_AT 1981_MC Brixton_NP1 disorders_NN2 ._. 
Lord_NNB Scarman_NP1 referred_VVD to_II violence_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 '_GE the_AT like_NN1 of_IO which_DDQ had_VHD not_XX previously_RR been_VBN seen_VVN in_II this_DD1 century_NNT1 in_II Britain_NP1 '_GE ,_, while_CS one_MC1 Conservative_JJ MP_NN1 summed_VVD up_RP this_DD1 orthodox_JJ reaction_NN1 in_II a_AT1 parliamentary_JJ debate_NN1 (_( on_II 13_MC April_NPM1 1981_MC )_) when_RRQ he_PPHS1 spoke_VVD of_IO the_AT riots_NN2 as_58 '_GE something_PN1 new_JJ and_CC sinister_JJ in_II our_APPGE long_JJ national_JJ history_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT initial_JJ response_NN1 of_IO the_AT Left_JJ and_CC liberals_NN2 to_II this_DD1 reaction_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO dub_VVI the_AT conventional_JJ wisdom_NN1 '_GE moral_JJ panic_NN1 '_GE ._. 
What_DDQ was_VBDZ new_JJ was_VBDZ the_AT growth_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 strong_JJ state_NN1 control_NN1 apparatus_NN1 ,_, legitimated_VVN by_II the_AT fears_NN2 generated_VVN by_II manipulation_NN1 of_IO public_JJ anxiety_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ pointed_VVN out_RP that_CST contrary_II21 to_II22 the_AT rose-tinted_JJ spectacles_NN2 view_VV0 ,_, Britain_NP1 has_VHZ a_AT1 long_JJ history_NN1 of_IO riot_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 ._. 
The_AT conventional_JJ perspective_NN1 is_VBZ guilty_JJ of_IO '_GE historical_JJ amnesia_NN1 '_GE ,_, which_DDQ has_VHZ forgotten_VVN the_AT turbulent_JJ and_CC bloody_JJ conflicts_NN2 of_IO the_AT past_NN1 (_( see_VV0 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, Benyon_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT most_RGT thorough-going_JJ and_CC influential_JJ example_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 genre_NN1 of_IO debunking_VVG moral_JJ panic_NN1 is_VBZ Hooligan_NN1 by_II Geoff_NP1 Pearson_NP1 (_( 1983_MC )_) ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 deservedly_RR much-admired_JJ ,_, fascinating_JJ ,_, and_CC lovingly_RR collected_VVN parade_NN1 of_IO paranoia_NN1 through_II the_AT ages_NN2 ._. 
Moving_VVG backwards_RL ,_, through_II four_MC centuries_NNT2 of_IO history_NN1 ,_, Pearson_NP1 shows_VVZ a_AT1 perennial_JJ refrain_NN1 lamenting_VVG a_AT1 supposedly_RR shocking_JJ increase_NN1 in_II crime_NN1 ,_, violence_NN1 ,_, and_CC public_JJ disorder_NN1 ._. 
Each_DD1 period_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO construct_VVI its_APPGE own_DA mythical_JJ golden_JJ age_NN1 '_GE twenty_MC years_NNT2 ago_RA '_GE ._. 
But_CCB Pearson_NP1 assiduously_RR shows_VVZ how_RRQ the_AT grandads_NN2 of_IO that_DD1 supposed_JJ era_NN1 of_IO tranquillity_NN1 were_VBDR themselves_PPX2 bemoaning_VVG the_AT sad_JJ decline_NN1 of_IO standards_NN2 of_IO virtue_NN1 and_CC discipline_NN1 since_CS their_APPGE youth_NN1 ._. 
And_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 ,_, in_II a_AT1 potentially_RR infinite_JJ regress_NN1 of_IO grandadology_NN1 ,_, wailing_VVG and_CC gnashing_VVG teeth_NN2 at_II the_AT decline_NN1 of_IO family_NN1 life_NN1 ,_, parental_JJ irresponsibility_NN1 ,_, declining_VVG national_JJ character_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT need_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 firm_JJ reassertion_NN1 of_IO authority_NN1 ._. 
'_GE Street_NN1 violence_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 are_VBR solidly_RR entrenched_JJ features_NN2 of_IO the_AT social_JJ landscape_NN1 '_GE ,_, argues_VVZ Pearson_NP1 ,_, at_II any_DD rate_NN1 in_II capitalist_JJ societies_NN2 which_DDQ necessarily_RR generate_VV0 a_AT1 '_GE residuum_NN1 '_GE ,_, an_AT1 under-class_NN1 of_IO the_AT underprivileged_JJ and_CC unemployed_JJ ,_, unintegrated_JJ and_CC potentially_RR threatening_VVG to_II the_AT established_JJ and_CC respectable_JJ ._. 
If_CS this_DD1 reserve_JJ army_NN1 is_VBZ always_RR with_IW us_PPIO2 ,_, so_RR is_VBZ social_JJ reaction_NN1 to_II it_PPH1 :_: an_AT1 '_GE immovable_JJ preoccupation_NN1 '_GE with_IW '_GE the_AT awesome_JJ spectre_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 and_CC violence_NN1 perpetually_RR spiralling_VVG upwards_58 '_GE ._. 
This_DD1 perspective_NN1 offers_VVZ a_AT1 useful_JJ corrective_NN1 to_II the_AT historical_JJ perception_NN1 of_IO recent_JJ levels_NN2 of_IO crime_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 as_CSA utterly_RR foreign_JJ and_CC novel_NN1 in_II British_JJ experience_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB the_AT critique_NN1 runs_VVZ the_AT danger_NN1 of_IO becoming_VVG a_AT1 facile_JJ agnosticism_NN1 about_II patterns_NN2 or_CC trends_NN2 in_II crime_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 ._. 
Piecing_VVG together_RL a_AT1 catalogue_NN1 of_IO recurring_JJ laments_NN2 neither_RR answers_VVZ nor_CC dismisses_VVZ the_AT still_JJ pertinent_JJ question_NN1 :_: are_VBR things_NN2 really_RR getting_VVG worse_JJR ,_, getting_VVG better_RRR ,_, or_CC remaining_VVG the_AT same_DA ?_? 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ as_CSA if_CS an_AT1 economic_JJ historian_NN1 ,_, collating_VVG woeful_JJ Financial_JJ Times_NNT2 editorials_NN2 every_AT1 few_DA2 years_NNT2 ,_, were_VBDR to_TO conclude_VVI that_CST there_EX really_RR were_VBDR no_AT business-cycles_NN2 ,_, let_II21 alone_II22 longer-term_JJ Kondratieff_NN1 waves_NN2 of_IO growth_NN1 and_CC decline_NN1 ._. 
Furthermore_RR ,_, the_AT litanies_NN2 of_IO '_GE respectable_JJ fears_NN2 '_GE and_CC '_GE moral_JJ panics_NN2 '_GE are_VBR only_RR one_MC1 of_IO the_AT discourses_NN2 about_II '_GE law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 '_GE found_VVN in_II popular_JJ ,_, political_JJ ,_, or_CC academic_JJ discussion_NN1 over_II the_AT last_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
At_II the_AT turn_NN1 of_IO the_AT century_NNT1 ,_, the_AT very_JJ time_NNT1 when_RRQ Pearson_NP1 documents_VVZ the_AT coinage_NN1 of_IO the_AT term_NN1 '_GE hooligan_NN1 '_GE to_TO portray_VVI a_AT1 supposedly_RR new_JJ breed_NN1 of_IO youthful_JJ folk-devil_NN1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ found_VVN in_II other_JJ sources_NN2 a_AT1 mood_NN1 of_IO contemporary_JJ congratulation_NN1 about_II the_AT long-term_JJ conquest_NN1 of_IO the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO order_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Criminal_JJ Registrar_NN1 's_GE Report_NN1 for_IF 1901_MC documents_VVZ a_AT1 trend_NN1 for_IF declining_JJ levels_NN2 of_IO crime_NN1 and_CC violence_NN1 over_II more_DAR than_CSN two_MC decades_NNT2 ._. 
The_AT introduction_NN1 comments_NN2 :_: '_" We_PPIS2 have_VH0 witnessed_VVN a_AT1 great_JJ change_NN1 in_II manners_NN2 :_: the_AT substitution_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 without_IW blows_NN2 for_IF blows_NN2 with_IW or_CC without_IW words_NN2 ;_; an_AT1 approximation_NN1 in_II the_AT manners_NN2 of_IO different_JJ classes_NN2 ;_; a_AT1 decline_NN1 in_II the_AT spirit_NN1 of_IO lawlessness_NN1 ._. 
'_GE Nor_CC was_VBDZ this_DD1 position_NN1 unique_JJ ._. 
The_AT latest_JJT volume_NN1 of_IO the_AT magisterial_JJ History_NN1 of_IO English_JJ Criminal_JJ Law_NN1 (_( Radzinowicz_NP1 and_CC Hood_NP1 ,_, 1986_MC ,_, vol._NNU 5_MC )_) shows_VVZ that_CST criminologists_NN2 at_II the_AT turn_NN1 of_IO the_AT century_NNT1 were_VBDR vexed_VVN with_IW explaining_VVG the_AT puzzling_JJ phenomenon_NN1 of_IO English_JJ success_NN1 in_II conquering_JJ routine_NN1 crime_NN1 and_CC violence_NN1 ._. 
Not_XX that_CST all_DB was_VBDZ well_JJ in_II the_AT sphere_NN1 of_IO order_NN1 and_CC crime_NN1 ._. 
On_II the_AT one_MC1 hand_NN1 ,_, there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO political_JJ and_CC industrial_JJ threats_NN2 to_II the_AT order_NN1 of_IO the_AT established_JJ classes_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Fenian_JJ menace_NN1 legitimated_VVD the_AT establishment_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 specifically_RR political_JJ police_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ would_VM have_VHI been_VBN utterly_RR unacceptable_JJ in_II the_AT climate_NN1 of_IO early_JJ nineteenth-century_JJ Britain_NP1 (_( Porter_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT industrial_JJ conflicts_NN2 of_IO the_AT first_MD quarter_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 century_NNT1 stimulated_VVD a_AT1 new_JJ level_NN1 of_IO centralization_NN1 and_CC sophistication_NN1 in_II the_AT state_NN1 's_GE coercive_JJ response_NN1 to_II the_AT labour_NN1 movement_NN1 (_( Morgan_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
But_CCB what_DDQ differentiates_VVZ the_AT earlier_JJR part_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 century_NNT1 from_II either_RR the_AT present_NN1 or_CC the_AT early_JJ nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 is_VBZ that_CST these_DD2 problems_NN2 did_VDD not_XX all_DB coalesce_VVI into_II one_MC1 disturbing_JJ image_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 threatening_JJ ,_, dangerous_JJ ,_, and_CC disorderly_JJ criminal_JJ class_NN1 ._. 
Various_JJ types_NN2 of_IO criminal_NN1 the_AT political_JJ ,_, the_AT habitual_JJ and_CC the_AT recidivist_NN1 ,_, the_AT feeble-minded_NN1 ,_, the_AT inebriate_NN1 ,_, the_AT juvenile_JJ were_VBDR all_DB differentiated_VVN as_CSA separate_JJ specimens_NN2 in_II the_AT taxonomies_NN2 of_IO the_AT new_JJ science_NN1 of_IO criminology_NN1 (_( Garland_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC )_) ._. 
And_CC with_IW the_AT cognitive_JJ optimism_NN1 of_IO criminology_NN1 was_VBDZ combined_VVN a_AT1 penological_JJ optimism_NN1 ,_, that_CST the_AT new_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO scientifically_RR grounded_VVN interventions_NN2 would_VM provide_VVI a_AT1 solution_NN1 to_II the_AT problems_NN2 of_IO crime_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 penal_JJ optimism_NN1 reigned_VVD throughout_II the_AT first_MD half_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 century_NNT1 (_( Bailey_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
Right_RR down_RP from_II the_AT last_MD quarter_NN1 of_IO the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 to_II the_AT 1960s_MC2 one_PN1 can_VM indeed_RR construct_VVI a_AT1 counter-grandadology_NN1 to_II Pearson_NP1 's_GE '_GE history_NN1 of_IO respectable_JJ fears_NN2 '_GE ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO catalogue_VVI a_AT1 chorus_NN1 of_IO social_JJ self-congratulation_NN1 ,_, as_CSA respectable_JJ commentators_NN2 recount_VV0 the_AT positive_JJ achievement_NN1 of_IO tranquillity_NN1 since_CS the_AT days_NNT2 of_IO their_APPGE youth_NN1 ,_, as_CSA the_AT very_JJ epitome_NN1 of_IO social_JJ progress_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 mood_NN1 is_VBZ captured_VVN ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, in_II Leonard_NP1 Woolf_NP1 's_GE autobiography_NN1 Sowing_NN1 (_( 1960_MC )_) :_: I_PPIS1 am_VBM struck_VVN by_II the_AT immense_JJ change_NN1 from_II social_JJ barbarism_NN1 to_II social_JJ civilisation_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ taken_VVN place_NN1 in_II London_NP1 (_( indeed_RR in_II Great_NP1 Britain_NP1 )_) during_II my_APPGE lifetime_NNT1 ._. 
No_PN121 one_PN122 but_CCB an_AT1 old_JJ Londoner_NN1 who_PNQS has_VHZ been_VBN born_VVN and_CC bred_VVN and_CC has_VHZ lived_VVN for_IF 50_MC to_II 60_MC years_NNT2 in_II London_NP1 can_VM have_VHI any_DD idea_NN1 of_IO the_AT extent_NN1 of_IO the_AT change_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ amazing_JJ to_TO walk_VVI down_II Drury_NP1 Lane_NN1 or_CC the_AT small_JJ streets_NN2 about_RG 7_MC Dials_NN2 today_RT and_CC recall_VV0 their_APPGE condition_NN1 only_RR 50_MC years_NNT2 ago_RA ._. 
Even_RR as_RG late_RR as_CSA 1900_MC it_PPH1 would_VM not_XX have_VHI been_VBN safe_JJ to_TO walk_VVI in_II any_DD of_IO these_DD2 streets_NN2 after_II dark_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX intended_VVN to_TO supplant_VVI Pearson_NP1 's_GE perennial_JJ panic_NN1 view_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 resuscitated_JJ Whig_JJ theory_NN1 of_IO progress_NN1 ._. 
The_AT point_NN1 is_VBZ only_RR that_CST there_EX are_VBR long-term_JJ trends_NN2 and_CC patterns_NN2 in_II crime_NN1 ,_, violence_NN1 ,_, and_CC disorder_NN1 ._. 
There_EX may_VM be_VBI a_AT1 perennial_JJ fascination_NN1 with_IW the_AT crimes_NN2 which_DDQ do_VD0 exist_VVI ,_, but_CCB more_RGR sober_JJ analytic_JJ or_CC reflective_JJ assessments_NN2 have_VH0 not_XX always_RR been_VBN pessimistic_JJ or_CC anguished_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 may_VM evoke_VVI nostalgia_NN1 now_RT ,_, or_CC appear_VV0 quaintly_JJ nave_NN1 ,_, but_CCB there_EX have_VH0 been_VBN periods_NN2 when_RRQ crime_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 seemed_VVD soluble_JJ ,_, if_CS not_XX yet_RR totally_RR vanished_VVD ,_, problems_NN2 ._. 
IS_VBZ CRIME_NN1 INCREASING_VVG ?_? 
The_AT statistics_NN on_II crime_NN1 ,_, for_IF all_DB the_AT familiar_JJ pitfalls_NN2 in_II their_APPGE interpretation_NN1 ,_, should_VM not_XX be_VBI dismissed_VVN ._. 
They_PPHS2 can_VM be_VBI judiciously_RR appraised_VVN ,_, with_IW an_AT1 open_JJ eye_NN1 for_IF trends_NN2 which_DDQ may_VM affect_VVI the_AT relation_NN1 between_II recorded_JJ and_CC unrecorded_JJ crime_NN1 ,_, in_II combination_NN1 with_IW broader_JJR consideration_NN1 of_IO historical_JJ and_CC theoretical_JJ issues_NN2 which_DDQ may_VM affect_VVI their_APPGE validity_NN1 ._. 
The_AT major_JJ studies_NN2 of_IO the_AT long-term_JJ trends_NN2 in_II crime_NN1 statistics_NN (_( Gurr_NP1 ,_, 1976_MC ,_, 1981_MC ;_; Gatrell_NP1 and_CC Hadden_NP1 ,_, 1972_MC ;_; Gatrell_NP1 ,_, 1980_MC )_) concur_VV0 in_II depicting_VVG a_AT1 secular_JJ decline_NN1 in_II the_AT latter_DA decades_NNT2 of_IO the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
This_DD1 coincided_VVD ,_, however_RR ,_, with_IW an_AT1 increasing_JJ prevalence_NN1 of_IO the_AT conditions_NN2 and_CC institutions_NN2 which_DDQ should_VM lead_VVI us_PPIO2 to_TO expect_VVI the_AT reporting_NN1 and_CC recording_NN1 of_IO offences_NN2 to_TO grow_VVI in_II31 proportion_II32 to_II33 the_AT actual_JJ occurrence_NN1 of_IO victimization_NN1 ._. 
As_II a_AT1 noted_JJ historian_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 recently_RR argued_VVN ,_, the_AT decrease_NN1 in_II levels_NN2 of_IO recorded_JJ crime_NN1 '_GE coincides_VVZ with_IW increased_JJ court_NN1 activity_NN1 ,_, with_IW the_AT spread_NN1 and_CC professionalisation_NN1 of_IO the_AT new_JJ police_NN2 ,_, and_CC with_IW an_AT1 apparent_JJ increase_NN1 in_II public_JJ cooperation_NN1 with_IW both_DB2 courts_NN2 and_CC the_AT police_NN2 ._. 
If_CS the_AT radical_JJ criminologists_NN2 '_GE assumptions_NN2 are_VBR correct_JJ ,_, then_RT the_AT figures_NN2 for_IF the_AT second_MD half_NN1 of_IO the_AT 19th_MD century_NNT1 might_VM probably_RR show_VVI the_AT opposite_JJ from_II that_DD1 which_DDQ they_PPHS2 do_VD0 '_GE (_( Emsley_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC ,_, p._NN1 42_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT secular_JJ trend_NN1 towards_II declining_JJ levels_NN2 of_IO crime_NN1 levelled_VVD off_RP in_II the_AT first_MD decade_NNT1 of_IO this_DD1 century_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT recorded_JJ rate_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 then_RT remains_VVZ on_II a_AT1 rough_JJ plateau_NN1 until_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1930s_MC2 ._. 
During_II the_AT late_JJ 1930s_MC2 and_CC early_JJ 1940s_MC2 there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 fairly_RR sharp_JJ rise_NN1 ,_, but_CCB then_RT again_RT a_AT1 rough_JJ plateau_NN1 (_( albeit_CS with_IW sharp_JJ year-by-year_JJ fluctuations_NN2 )_) in_II the_AT late_JJ 1940s_MC2 until_CS the_AT mid-1950s_NN2 ,_, when_CS there_EX begins_VVZ a_AT1 sustained_JJ and_CC sharp_JJ increase_NN1 ,_, getting_VVG ever_RR steeper_JJR in_II the_AT late_JJ 1970s_MC2 and_CC 1980s_MC2 ._. 
From_II 1975_MC onwards_RL the_AT rising_JJ crime-rate_NN1 is_VBZ justifiably_RR referred_VVN to_II as_CSA in_II a_AT1 stage_NN1 of_IO '_GE hyper-crisis_NN1 '_GE (_( Kinsey_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, 1986_MC p._NNU 12_MC )_) ._. 
While_CS in_II the_AT quarter-century_NNT1 from_II 1950_MC to_II 1975_MC recorded_VVD notifiable_JJ offences_NN2 per_II 100,000_MC population_NN1 increased_VVN by_II just_RR over_RG 3,000_MC ,_, from_II 1,094_MC to_II 4,283_MC ,_, it_PPH1 took_VVD just_RR the_AT decade_NNT1 from_II 1976_MC to_II 1986_MC for_IF crimes_NN2 per_II 100,000_MC population_NN1 to_TO increase_VVI another_DD1 3,000_MC ,_, from_II 4,346_MC to_II 7,331_MC (_( Criminal_JJ Statistics_NN ,_, 1986_MC ,_, Table_NN1 2.2_MC )_) ._. 
In_II the_AT late_JJ nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 the_AT trend_NN1 to_TO lower_VVI levels_NN2 of_IO recorded_JJ crime_NN1 coincided_VVD with_IW developments_NN2 which_DDQ ,_, other_JJ things_NN2 being_VBG equal_JJ ,_, would_VM lead_VVI us_PPIO2 to_TO expect_VVI rising_VVG levels_NN2 of_IO recording_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 buttresses_VVZ confidence_NN1 that_CST the_AT recorded_JJ trend_NN1 is_VBZ in_II the_AT correct_JJ direction_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB can_VM we_PPIS2 be_VBI sure_JJ that_CST the_AT last_MD three_MC decades_NNT2 of_IO sustained_JJ growth_NN1 in_II crime_NN1 are_VBR not_XX a_AT1 recording_NN1 phenomenon_NN1 (_( Bottomley_NP1 and_CC Pease_NP1 ,_, 1986_MC )_) ?_? 
The_AT plain_JJ answer_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST we_PPIS2 can_VM not_XX be_VBI certain_JJ about_II it_PPH1 ._. 
At_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 as_CSA recorded_VVN levels_NN2 of_IO crime_NN1 have_VH0 increased_VVN ,_, so_RR have_VH0 many_DA2 other_JJ factors_NN2 which_DDQ might_VM increase_VVI the_AT propensity_NN1 of_IO the_AT public_JJ to_TO report_VVI ,_, and_CC the_AT police_NN2 to_TO record_VVI ,_, offences_NN2 ._. 
Police_NN2 numbers_NN2 and_CC resources_NN2 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, have_VH0 increased_VVN considerably_RR ._. 
The_AT number_NN1 of_IO police-officers_NN2 in_II England_NP1 and_CC Wales_NP1 grew_VVD from_II nearly_RR 76,000_MC in_II 1961_MC to_II nearly_RR 110,00_MC in_II 1976_MC ,_, and_CC nearly_RR 122,000_MC in_II 1986._MC police_NN2 strength_NN1 his_APPGE not_XX ,_, however_RR ,_, kept_VVD pace_NN1 with_IW the_AT increase_NN1 in_II recorded_JJ crime_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1961_MC there_EX were_VBDR 11_MC crimes_NN2 recorded_VVN per_II police-officer_NN1 ,_, but_CCB by_II 1986_MC this_DD1 had_VHD grown_VVN to_II 32_MC ._. 
Even_RR taking_VVG account_NN1 of_IO the_AT increase_NN1 in_II other_JJ resources_NN2 available_JJ to_TO augment_VVI police-officers_NN2 ,_, from_II civilian_JJ support_NN1 staff_NN to_II more_RGR sophisticated_JJ technology_NN1 of_IO all_DB kinds_NN2 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ clearly_RR a_AT1 much_RR greater_JJR recorded_JJ crime_NN1 work-load_NN1 per_II police-officer_NN1 ._. 
The_AT only_JJ way_NN1 that_CST we_PPIS2 could_VM definitely_RR ascertain_VVI the_AT extent_NN1 of_IO the_AT increase_NN1 in_II recorded_JJ crime_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ due_II21 to_II22 changes_NN2 in_II reporting_VVG and/or_CC recording_VVG practices_NN2 would_VM be_VBI if_CS there_EX were_VBDR available_JJ victimization_NN1 data_NN over_II a_AT1 long_JJ period_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA data_NN is_VBZ available_JJ for_IF the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 since_II 1973_MC ,_, when_CS the_AT Federal_JJ Government_NN1 initiated_VVD an_AT1 annual_JJ series_NN of_IO National_JJ Crime_NN1 Surveys_NN2 ._. 
Overall_RR these_DD2 indicate_VV0 that_CST while_CS the_AT rate_NN1 of_IO victimization_NN1 recorded_VVN in_II the_AT annual_JJ surveys_NN2 did_VDD increase_VVI in_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 and_CC 1980s_MC2 ,_, this_DD1 was_VBDZ at_II a_AT1 substantially_RR lower_JJR rate_NN1 (_( 1_MC1 per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 on_II average_NN1 )_) than_CSN the_AT officially_RR recorded_VVN crime-rate_NN1 (_( 3.55_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 average_JJ annual_JJ increase_NN1 ;_; cf._VV0 Box_NN1 ,_, 1987_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 1820_MC )_) ._. 
Moreover_RR ,_, the_AT global_JJ index_NN1 of_IO either_RR victimization_NN1 or_CC recorded_VVD offences_NN2 can_VM be_VBI misleading_JJ ,_, in_CS21 that_CS22 it_PPH1 conceals_VVZ quite_RG large_JJ variations_NN2 in_II the_AT trends_NN2 for_IF specific_JJ offences_NN2 ._. 
None_RR31 the_RR32 less_RR33 ,_, what_DDQ the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 data_NN imply_VV0 is_VBZ that_CST the_AT upward_JJ trend_NN1 in_II recorded_JJ crime_NN1 is_VBZ in_II the_AT same_DA direction_NN1 as_CSA actual_JJ victimization_NN1 ,_, although_CS at_II a_AT1 slower_JJR rate_NN1 ._. 
The_AT recorded_JJ figures_NN2 exaggerate_VV0 the_AT increase_NN1 in_II victimization_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ occurring_VVG ,_, mainly_RR because_II21 of_II22 a_AT1 greater_JJR public_JJ propensity_NN1 to_TO report_VVI certain_JJ crimes_NN2 ._. 
The_AT experience_NN1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 can_VM not_XX necessarily_RR be_VBI extrapolated_VVN to_II the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 ._. 
In_II Britain_NP1 there_EX have_VH0 been_VBN three_MC national_JJ crime_NN1 surveys_NN2 ,_, in_II 1982_MC ,_, 1984_MC ,_, and_CC 1988_MC ._. 
Overall._NP1 between_II these_DD2 years_NNT2 ,_, the_AT increase_NN1 in_II victimization_NN1 measured_VVN by_II the_AT survey_NN1 (_( 30_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 )_) roughly_RR matches_VVZ the_AT increase_NN1 of_IO police_NN2 recorded_VVD offences_NN2 (_( 41_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 )_) ._. 
But_CCB this_DD1 can_VM not_XX be_VBI taken_VVN as_CSA carte_NN121 blanche_NN122 for_IF assuming_VVG that_DD1 long-term_JJ recorded_JJ crime_NN1 trends_NN2 correspond_VV0 to_II victimization_NN1 ._. 
Not_XX only_RR is_VBZ a_AT1 comparison_NN1 between_II only_RR three_MC years_NNT2 potentially_RR misleading_JJ ;_; there_EX are_VBR very_RG considerable_JJ divergences_NN2 between_II trends_NN2 in_II victimization_NN1 and_CC recorded_JJ crime_NN1 for_IF specific_JJ offences_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ are_VBR concealed_VVN by_II the_AT coincidence_NN1 in_II the_AT overall_JJ direction_NN1 (_( Hough_NP1 and_CC Mayhew_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC ,_, Dowds_NP2 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, 1989_MC )_) ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ often_RR pointed_VVN out_RP that_CST the_AT long-running_JJ set_NN1 of_IO victimization_NN1 data_NN in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, the_AT General_JJ Household_NN1 Survey_NN1 's_GE regular_JJ measurement_NN1 of_IO the_AT extent_NN1 of_IO burglary_NN1 victimization_NN1 since_II 1972_MC ,_, indicates_VVZ that_CST most_DAT of_IO the_AT increase_NN1 in_II recorded_JJ burglary_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 reporting_NN1 phenomenon_NN1 ._. 
Combining_VVG the_AT General_JJ Household_NN1 Survey_NN1 (_( GHS_NP1 )_) and_CC the_AT British_JJ Crime_NN1 Survey_NN1 (_( BCS_NP2 )_) victimization_NN1 data_NN reveals_VVZ that_CST while_CS police-recorded_JJ burglaries_NN2 doubled_VVN between_II 1972_MC and_CC 1983_MC ,_, the_AT level_NN1 of_IO victimization_NN1 went_VVD up_RP only_RR by_II 20_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 (_( Hough_NP1 and_CC Mayhew_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 1617_MC )_) ._. 
Thus_RR the_AT considerable_JJ increase_NN1 in_II recorded_JJ burglary_NN1 during_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 was_VBDZ largely_RR a_AT1 recording_NN1 phenomenon_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB this_DD1 may_VM not_XX apply_VVI to_II other_JJ offences_NN2 ._. 
Furthermore_RR ,_, the_AT BCS_NP2 points_VVZ out_RP (_( ibid._RR )_) that_CST the_AT gap_NN1 between_II the_AT trend_NN1 in_II recorded_JJ burglaries_NN2 and_CC victimization_NN1 is_VBZ much_RR lower_JJR in_II recent_JJ years_NNT2 :_: there_EX has_VHZ been_VBN an_AT1 appreciable_JJ increase_NN1 in_II burglary_NN1 victimization_NN1 between_II 1981_MC and_CC 1983_MC of_IO 9_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 ,_, while_CS recorded_JJ burglaries_NN2 increased_VVN by_II 24_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 ._. 
If_CS this_DD1 gap_NN1 continues_VVZ to_II narrow_JJ then_RT the_AT recorded_JJ trend_NN1 of_IO burglaries_NN2 may_VM be_VBI more_RGR confidently_RR interpreted_VVN as_CSA showing_VVG the_AT direction_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 ._. 
In_II conclusion_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 seems_VVZ that_CST we_PPIS2 can_VM not_XX accept_VVI without_IW question_NN1 the_AT dramatic_JJ increase_NN1 in_II recorded_JJ crime_NN1 as_CSA corresponding_VVG to_II a_AT1 real_JJ increase_NN1 in_II victimization_NN1 of_IO the_AT same_DA proportions_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI wishful_JJ thinking_NN1 to_TO explain_VVI away_RL all_DB ,_, or_CC even_RR most_DAT ,_, of_IO the_AT increase_NN1 as_II an_AT1 artefact_NN1 of_IO recording_VVG changes_NN2 ._. 
We_PPIS2 can_VM plausibly_RR infer_VVI that_DD1 crime_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN increasing_VVG in_II the_AT last_MD two_MC to_II three_MC decades_NNT2 ,_, presenting_VVG a_AT1 problem_NN1 for_IF explanation_NN1 and_CC policy_NN1 ._. 
CRIME_NN1 AND_CC INNER_JJ CITIES_NN2 While_CS crime_NN1 overall_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN increasing_VVG ,_, it_PPH1 must_VM be_VBI emphasized_VVN that_CST both_DB2 the_AT reality_NN1 and_CC the_AT fear_NN1 of_IO victimization_NN1 are_VBR considerably_RR greater_JJR in_II some_DD areas_NN2 than_CSN others_NN2 ._. 
The_AT British_JJ Crime_NN1 Survey_NN1 found_VVD ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, that_DD1 (_( as_CSA classified_VVN by_II the_AT ACORN_NN1 '_GE Classification_NN1 of_IO Residential_JJ Neighbourhoods_NN2 '_GE system_NN1 )_) there_EX were_VBDR three_MC types_NN2 of_IO area_NN1 which_DDQ were_VBDR especially_RR prone_JJ to_TO both_RR crime_NN1 and_CC fear_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 :_: '_GE High-status_JJ non-family_JJ areas_NN2 '_GE (_( I_ZZ1 )_) ,_, '_GE Multi-racial_JJ areas_NN2 '_GE (_( H_ZZ1 )_) ,_, and_CC '_GE Poorest_JJT council_NN1 estates_NN2 '_GE (_( G_ZZ1 )_) ._. 
Whereas_CS the_AT national_JJ average_JJ frequency_NN1 of_IO being_VBG a_AT1 '_GE mugging_NN1 '_GE victim_NN1 (_( robbery/theft_NN1 from_II the_AT person_NN1 )_) was_VBDZ 1.4_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 ,_, in_II these_DD2 areas_NN2 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ :_: I_MC1 :_: 3.9_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 ;_; H_NP1 :_: 4.3_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 ;_; G_NP1 :_: 3.3_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 ._. 
In_II the_AT last_MD two_MC areas_NN2 ,_, the_AT proportions_NN2 of_IO people_NN who_PNQS were_VBDR '_GE very_RG worried_JJ about_II mugging_NN1 '_GE were_VBDR 32_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 and_CC 36_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 ,_, compared_VVN to_II an_AT1 average_NN1 of_IO 20_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 ,_, and_CC (_( 11_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 in_II rural_JJ areas_NN2 these_DD2 data_NN evidently_RR precede_VV0 the_AT advent_NN1 of_IO lager_NN1 loutishness_NN1 !_! )_) ._. 
Whereas_CS on_II average_NN1 2.4_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 of_IO households_NN2 were_VBDR victimized_VVN by_II burglary_NN1 ,_, in_II the_AT high-risk_JJ areas_NN2 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ 6.3_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 (_( Hough_NP1 and_CC Mayhew_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC ,_, Table_NN1 M_ZZ1 )_) ._. 
These_DD2 findings_NN2 are_VBR replicated_VVN by_II the_AT recent_JJ local_JJ crime_NN1 surveys_NN2 ,_, notably_RR those_DD2 in_II Merseyside_NP1 and_CC Islington_NP1 ,_, which_DDQ have_VH0 constituted_VVN the_AT empirical_JJ core_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE New_JJ Left_JJ realism_NN1 '_GE in_II criminology_NN1 (_( Kinsey_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC ;_; Jones_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, 1986_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT Merseyside_NP1 Crime_NN1 Survey_NN1 found_VVD ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, that_CST 44_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 of_IO interviewees_NN2 had_VHD been_VBN victims_NN2 of_IO crime_NN1 in_II the_AT last_MD twelve_MC months_NNT2 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 quarter_NN1 had_VHD been_VBN victimized_VVN twice_RR or_CC more_RRR ._. 
Multiple_JJ victimization_NN1 (_( two_MC or_CC more_DAR experiences_NN2 )_) was_VBDZ twice_RR as_RG high_JJ in_II inner-city_JJ areas_NN2 as_CSA in_II affluent_JJ suburbs_NN2 ._. 
Fear_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 varied_VVD accordingly_RR ._. 
Crime_NN1 was_VBDZ seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 big_JJ problem_NN1 by_II 66_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 in_II inner-city_JJ Liverpool_NP1 ,_, compared_VVN with_IW 13_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 in_II wealthier_JJR suburbs_NN2 (_( Kinsey_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, 1986_MC ,_, p._NN1 4_MC )_) ._. 
David_NP1 Downes_NP1 (_( 1983_MC )_) aptly_RR summed_VVN up_RP the_AT irony_NN1 of_IO '_GE law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 '_GE being_VBG seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 Conservative_JJ concern_NN1 ,_, when_CS he_PPHS1 called_VVD it_PPH1 '_VBZ theft_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 issue_NN1 '_GE ._. 
POLICING_NN1 ,_, ORDER_NN1 AND_CC LEGITIMACY_NN1 Rising_VVG crime_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX an_AT1 inevitable_JJ nor_CC universal_JJ problem_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ noted_VVN above_II that_DD1 for_IF an_AT1 extended_JJ period_NN1 of_IO our_APPGE history_NN1 crime_NN1 was_VBDZ actually_RR falling_VVG ._. 
The_AT overall_JJ trajectory_NN1 since_CS the_AT early_JJ nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 seems_VVZ to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 rough_JJ U-shape_NN1 :_: falling_VVG down_RP to_II the_AT early_JJ 1900s_MC2 ,_, a_AT1 plateau_NN1 until_CS the_AT mid-1950s_NN2 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 steepening_JJ rise_NN1 since_II then_RT ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ plausible_JJ that_CST disorder_NN1 follows_VVZ a_AT1 similar_JJ pattern_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN shown_VVN ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, that_CST levels_NN2 of_IO violence_NN1 during_II industrial_JJ disputes_NN2 fell_VVD in_II the_AT first_MD three-quarters_MF of_IO this_DD1 century_NNT1 ,_, but_CCB that_CST this_DD1 trend_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN reversed_VVN more_RGR recently_RR (_( Geary_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC )_) ._. 
If_CS crime_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 follow_VV0 a_AT1 U-shape_JJ pattern_NN1 of_IO long-term_JJ change_NN1 ,_, the_AT legitimacy_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 the_AT extent_NN1 to_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 are_VBR broadly_RR accepted_VVN as_CSA valid_JJ in_II mission_NN1 and_CC methods_NN2 has_VHZ followed_VVN an_AT1 inverse_JJ path_NN1 :_: an_AT1 upside-down_JJ U._NP1 Starting_NN1 from_II the_AT widespread_JJ opposition_NN1 encountered_VVN at_II the_AT birth_NN1 of_IO the_AT new_JJ police_NN2 ,_, opposition_NN1 gradually_RR came_VVD to_TO be_VBI located_VVN primarily_RR within_II the_AT less_58 '_GE respectable_JJ '_GE sections_NN2 of_IO the_AT working_JJ class_NN1 ,_, as_RG well_RR as_CSA in_II the_AT wider_JJR working_JJ class_NN1 during_II periods_NN2 of_IO labour_NN1 conflict_NN1 ._. 
Even_RR here_RL ,_, as_CSA the_AT fact_NN1 of_IO policing_NN1 came_VVD to_TO be_VBI established_VVN ,_, opposition_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX to_II the_AT police_NN2 per_RR21 se_RR22 ,_, but_CCB to_II specific_JJ operations_NN2 or_CC tactics_NN2 ._. 
By_II the_AT late_JJ 1940s_MC2 and_CC 1950s_MC2 ,_, the_AT advent_NN1 of_IO post-war_JJ political_JJ consensus_NN1 and_CC social_JJ integration_NN1 was_VBDZ the_AT precondition_NN1 for_IF the_AT police_NN2 achieving_VVG a_AT1 pinnacle_NN1 of_IO widespread_JJ popular_JJ acceptance_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 was_VBDZ symbolized_VVN in_II the_AT Dixon_NP1 of_IO Dock_NP1 Green_NN1 phenomenon_NN1 :_: the_AT only_JJ time_NNT1 that_CST a_AT1 cosy_JJ ,_, non-action-man_NN1 ,_, ordinary_JJ uniform_JJ bobby_NN1 has_VHZ attained_VVN heroic_JJ stature_NN1 in_II a_AT1 country_NN1 's_GE folk-lore_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 was_VBDZ confirmed_VVN by_II harder_JJR evidence_NN1 ,_, above_II all_DB by_II the_AT national_JJ survey_NN1 conducted_VVN for_IF the_AT 1960_MC Royal_JJ Commission_NN1 on_II the_AT Police_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 found_VVD not_XX only_RR a_AT1 generally_RR high_JJ level_NN1 of_IO support_NN1 for_IF the_AT police_NN2 ,_, but_CCB that_CST this_DD1 spread_NN1 throughout_II the_AT class_NN1 structure_NN1 (_( indeed_RR was_VBDZ marginally_RR higher_JJR in_II the_AT working_JJ class_NN1 )_) ._. 
The_AT very_JJ fact_NN1 that_CST a_AT1 series_NN of_IO comparatively_RR minor_JJ incidents_NN2 had_VHD triggered_VVN the_AT establishment_NN1 of_IO the_AT Royal_JJ Commission_NN1 as_II the_AT only_JJ comprehensive_JJ review_NN1 of_IO the_AT organization_NN1 of_IO policing_VVG in_II a_AT1 century_NNT1 ,_, is_VBZ testimony_NN1 to_II the_AT widespread_JJ consensus_NN1 about_II policing_NN1 ._. 
Since_CS the_AT 1950s_MC2 policing_NN1 has_VHZ become_VVN a_AT1 highly_RR controversial_JJ ,_, politicized_VVD issue_NN1 ._. 
More_RGR recent_JJ poll_NN1 evidence_NN1 (_( e.g._REX for_IF the_AT British_JJ Crime_NN1 Survey_NN1 ,_, or_CC the_AT British_JJ Social_JJ Attitudes_NN2 Survey_VV0 by_II Jowell_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, 1988_MC )_) continues_VVZ to_TO show_VVI high_JJ overall_JJ acceptance_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB this_DD1 must_VM be_VBI qualified_VVN in_II two_MC crucial_JJ ways_NN2 ._. 
First_MD ,_, there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 widespread_JJ perception_NN1 recorded_VVN in_II the_AT surveys_NN2 of_IO specific_JJ types_NN2 of_IO police_NN2 malpractice_NN1 coming_VVG to_TO be_VBI perceived_VVN as_CSA problematic_JJ ,_, e.g._REX corruption_NN1 and_CC racial_JJ discrimination_NN1 ._. 
Second_MD ,_, there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 considerable_JJ and_CC growing_JJ rejection_NN1 of_IO the_AT overall_JJ legitimacy_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 among_II some_DD sections_NN2 of_IO the_AT population_NN1 :_: youth_NN1 ,_, the_AT economically_RR marginal_JJ ,_, and_CC ethnic_JJ minorities_NN2 especially_RR Afro-Caribbeans_NP2 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT Policy_NN1 Studies_NN2 Institute_NN1 found_VVD that_CST while_CS 29_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 of_IO Londoners_NN2 overall_RR thought_VVD the_AT police_NN2 treat_VV0 particular_JJ groups_NN2 unfairly_RR ,_, this_DD1 rose_NN1 to_II 68_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 amongst_II young_JJ West_NP1 Indians_NN2 (_( Smith_NP1 ,_, 1983_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 2436_MC )_) ._. 
How_RRQ can_VM these_DD2 recent_JJ trends_NN2 (_( rising_VVG crime_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 ,_, and_CC falling_VVG police_NN2 legitimacy_NN1 )_) be_VBI explained_VVN ?_? 
CRIME_NN1 ,_, DEPRIVATION_NN1 ,_, AND_CC MORALITY_NN1 Criminologists_NN2 have_VH0 scarcely_RR addressed_VVN ,_, let_VVD alone_RR answered_VVN ,_, the_AT broad_JJ questions_NN2 of_IO explaining_VVG overall_JJ trends_NN2 in_II crime_NN1 ._. 
Positivist_JJ research_NN1 has_VHZ generated_VVN much_DA1 data_NN about_II specific_JJ relationships_NN2 between_II individual_JJ or_CC social_JJ characteristics_NN2 and_CC the_AT likelihood_NN1 of_IO conviction_NN1 ._. 
Radical_JJ approaches_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN characterized_VVN more_RRR by_II theoretical_JJ or_CC programmatic_JJ work_NN1 than_CSN by_II grounded_JJ accounts_NN2 or_CC changing_JJ crime_NN1 patterns_NN2 ._. 
Even_RR the_AT recent_JJ '_GE New_JJ Left_JJ realism_NN1 '_GE does_VDZ not_XX address_VVI the_AT broader_JJR questions_NN2 of_IO causation_NN1 ,_, though_CS its_APPGE leading_JJ exponent_NN1 Jock_NP1 Young_NP1 (_( 1986_MC )_) has_VHZ rightly_RR emphasized_VVN the_AT need_NN1 to_TO return_VVI aetiological_JJ questions_NN2 to_II the_AT foreground_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB so_RG far_RR their_APPGE explanation_NN1 of_IO rising_VVG crime_NN1 has_VHZ largely_RR focused_VVN on_II alleged_JJ deficiencies_NN2 in_II police_NN2 strategy_NN1 ,_, in_RR21 particular_RR22 on_II counter-productive_JJ militaristic_JJ tactics_NN2 which_DDQ exacerbate_VV0 '_GE public_JJ alienation_NN1 '_GE and_CC therefore_RR impede_VV0 successful_JJ crime_NN1 control_NN1 (_( Kinsey_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, 1986_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 402_MC )_) ._. 
Admittedly_RR the_AT vicious_JJ cycle_NN1 of_IO police_NN2 militarization_NN1 and_CC public_JJ alienation_NN1 is_VBZ seen_VVN to_TO be_VBI kicked_VVN into_II play_NN1 by_II the_AT economic_JJ crumbling_NN1 of_IO the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 ,_, but_CCB thereafter_RT the_AT weight_NN1 of_IO the_AT explanation_NN1 is_VBZ placed_VVN on_II inadequate_JJ (_( or_CC over-heavy_JJ )_) policing_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA will_VM be_VBI indicated_VVN below_RL ,_, I_PPIS1 do_VD0 not_XX feel_VVI that_RG much_RR (_( if_CS any_DD )_) of_IO the_AT explanation_NN1 can_VM lie_VVI at_II the_AT door_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 station_NN1 ._. 
More_RGR plausible_JJ is_VBZ the_AT analysis_NN1 developed_VVN in_II Dahrendorf_NP1 's_GE Hamlyn_NP1 Lectures_NN2 on_II '_GE law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 '_GE (_( Dahrendorf_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
In_II this_DD1 the_AT main_JJ structural_JJ precondition_NN1 of_IO growing_JJ crime_NN1 is_VBZ seen_VVN as_II the_AT growth_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 underclass_NN1 ._. 
The_AT social_JJ prerequisite_NN1 of_IO the_AT long_JJ trend_NN1 in_II the_AT late_JJ nineteenth_MD and_CC early_JJ twentieth_MD centuries_NNT2 towards_II lower_JJR crime_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 ,_, and_CC greater_JJR police_NN2 acceptance_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ the_AT historical_JJ process_NN1 of_IO working-class_JJ incorporation_NN1 ._. 
Uneven_JJ and_CC limited_VVN though_CS this_DD1 might_VM have_VHI been_VBN ,_, the_AT gulf_NN1 between_II Disraeli_NP1 's_GE two_MC nations_NN2 in_II the_AT early_JJ and_CC mid-nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 became_VVD blurred_VVN and_CC attenuated_VVN by_II the_AT twentieth_MD ._. 
The_AT sharp_JJ end_NN1 of_IO routine_NN1 policing_VVG always_RR falls_VVZ on_II the_AT economically_RR marginal_JJ ,_, those_DD2 who_PNQS live_VV0 out_RP their_APPGE lives_NN2 in_II public_JJ places_NN2 which_DDQ routine_NN1 police_NN2 patrols_NN2 regulate_VV0 ,_, and_CC those_DD2 who_PNQS are_VBR not_XX integrated_VVN into_II the_AT mainstream_JJ institutions_NN2 of_IO economic_JJ and_CC political_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
Incorporation_NN1 of_IO the_AT working_JJ class_NN1 reduced_VVD the_AT adult_NN1 part_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 residuum_NN1 to_II a_AT1 politically_RR insignificant_JJ ,_, atomistic_JJ ,_, albeit_CS cyclically_RR fluctuating_JJ stratum_NN1 ._. 
The_AT main_JJ grist_NN1 to_II the_AT mill_NN1 of_IO policing_NN1 was_VBDZ working-class_JJ youth_NN1 ,_, but_CCB the_AT perennial_JJ conflict_NN1 between_II youth_NN1 and_CC the_AT police_NN2 is_VBZ one_PN1 with_IW ever-changing_JJ persona_NN1 and_CC is_VBZ not_XX the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO political_JJ conflict_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 changed_VVN with_IW the_AT re-emergence_NN1 of_IO long-term_JJ structural_JJ unemployment_NN1 ,_, leading_VVG to_II the_AT de-incorporation_NN1 of_IO increasing_JJ sections_NN2 of_IO the_AT working_JJ class_NN1 ,_, '_" who_PNQS are_VBR being_VBG defined_VVN out_II21 of_II22 the_AT edifice_NN1 of_IO citizenship_NN1 '_GE (_( Dahrendorf_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC ,_, p._NN1 98_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT underclass_NN1 in_II Dahrendorf_NP1 's_GE account_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX simply_RR the_AT product_NN1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT consequence_NN1 of_IO the_AT apparent_JJ structural_JJ inevitability_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE position_NN1 :_: '_GE The_AT majority_NN1 class_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX need_VVI the_AT unemployed_JJ to_TO maintain_VVI and_CC even_RR increase_VVI its_APPGE standard_NN1 of_IO living_NN1 ..._... 
The_AT main_JJ point_NN1 about_II this_DD1 category_NN1 for_IF lack_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 better_JJR word_NN1 we_PPIS2 shall_VM call_VVI it_PPH1 '_VBZ under_II class_NN1 '_GE '_GE is_VBZ that_CST its_APPGE destiny_NN1 is_VBZ perceived_VVN as_II hopeless_58 '_GE (_( Dahrendorf_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 1017_MC )_) ._. 
Now_RT there_EX are_VBR problems_NN2 with_IW the_AT simple_JJ postulation_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 link_NN1 between_II unemployment_NN1 ,_, crime_NN1 ,_, and_CC disorder_NN1 ,_, as_CSA Mrs_NNB Thatcher_NP1 is_VBZ only_RR too_RG ready_JJ to_TO point_VVI out_RP ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ an_AT1 enormous_JJ literature_NN1 of_IO research_NN1 on_II the_AT relationship_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ the_AT late_JJ Steven_NP1 Box_NN1 (_( 1987_MC )_) has_VHZ usefully_RR summarized_VVN and_CC reviewed_VVN in_II his_APPGE very_RG important_JJ last_MD book_NN1 ,_, Recession_NN1 ,_, Crime_NN1 and_CC Punishment_NN1 ._. 
Box_NN1 summarizes_VVZ some_DD fifty_MC research_NN1 projects_NN2 on_II the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II unemployment_NN1 and_CC crime_NN1 ._. 
Most_DAT are_VBR aggregate_JJ studies_NN2 ,_, looking_VVG at_II the_AT correlation_NN1 over_II time_NNT1 or_CC across_II space_NN1 between_II levels_NN2 of_IO crime_NN1 and_CC unemployment_NN1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 sums_VVZ it_PPH1 up_RP :_: The_AT relationship_NN1 between_II overall_JJ unemployment_NN1 and_CC crime_NN1 is_VBZ inconsistent_JJ ..._... on_II balance_NN1 the_AT weight_NN1 of_IO existing_JJ research_NN1 supports_VVZ there_EX being_VBG a_AT1 weak_JJ but_CCB none_RR31 the_RR32 less_RR33 significant_JJ causal_JJ relationship_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, properly_RR targeted_VVN research_NN1 on_II young_JJ males_NN2 ,_, particularly_RR those_DD2 from_II disadvantaged_JJ ethnic_JJ groups_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ considers_VVZ both_RR the_AT meaning_NN1 and_CC duration_NN1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 ..._... has_VHZ yet_RR to_TO be_VBI done_VDN '._GE (_( pp._NNU2 967_MC )_) Much_RR of_IO this_DD1 debate_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN vitiated_VVN by_II the_AT assumption_NN1 that_CST if_CS unemployment_NN1 is_VBZ causally_RR related_VVN to_II crime_NN1 ,_, this_DD1 must_VM be_VBI an_AT1 invariable_JJ law_NN1 :_: true_JJ at_II all_DB times_NNT2 and_CC places_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ more_RGR plausible_JJ to_TO suppose_VVI that_CST the_AT meaning_NN1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 will_VM vary_VVI according_II21 to_II22 a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO factors_NN2 ,_, e.g._REX its_APPGE duration_NN1 ,_, social_JJ assessments_NN2 of_IO blame_NN1 ,_, previous_JJ experience_NN1 of_IO steady_JJ employment_NN1 ,_, perception_NN1 of_IO future_JJ prospects_NN2 ,_, comparison_NN1 with_IW other_JJ groups_NN2 ,_, etc_RA ._. 
It_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI too_RG much_DA1 ,_, therefore_RR ,_, to_TO expect_VVI that_CST there_EX would_VM be_VBI a_AT1 universal_JJ and_CC invariant_JJ relation_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD support_NN1 for_IF the_AT link_NN1 between_II offending_VVG and_CC perceptions_NN2 of_IO the_AT justice_NN1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 is_VBZ suggested_VVN by_II the_AT research_NN1 evidence_NN1 on_II the_AT connections_NN2 of_IO income_NN1 inequality_NN1 and_CC crime_NN1 ._. 
All_DB the_AT fifteen_MC studies_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 reviewed_VVD by_II Box_NN1 suggest_VV0 a_AT1 strong_JJ association_NN1 (_( over_II time_NNT1 or_CC cross-sectionally_RR )_) between_II economic_JJ inequality_NN1 and_CC crime_NN1 in_RR21 general_RR22 (_( though_CS this_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX true_JJ of_IO five_MC studies_NN2 on_II homicide_NN1 specifically_RR )_) (_( Box_NN1 ,_, 1987_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 8698_MC )_) ._. 
This_DD1 plausibly_RR supports_VVZ the_AT view_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ relative_JJ deprivation_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ causally_RR related_VVN to_II crime_NN1 ,_, and_CC that_CST in_II conditions_NN2 where_RRQ unemployment_NN1 is_VBZ perceived_VVN as_CSA unjust_JJ and_CC hopeless_JJ by_II comparison_NN1 with_IW the_AT lot_NN1 of_IO other_JJ groups_NN2 ,_, this_DD1 will_VM act_VVI as_II a_AT1 precipitant_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 ._. 
Two_MC recent_JJ studies_NN2 ,_, one_MC1 American_JJ (_( Thornberry_NP1 and_CC Christenson_NP1 ,_, 1984_MC )_) and_CC one_MC1 British_JJ (_( Farrington_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, 1986_MC )_) ,_, have_VH0 both_DB2 used_VVN a_AT1 novel_JJ methodology_NN1 to_TO establish_VVI that_CST at_RR21 least_RR22 in_II the_AT present_JJ climate_NN1 unemployment_NN1 is_VBZ linked_VVN to_II crime_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 have_VH0 looked_VVN at_II the_AT commission_NN1 of_IO offences_NN2 reported_VVN over_II time_NNT1 by_II a_AT1 sample_NN1 of_IO youths_NN2 in_II longitudinal_JJ surveys_NN2 ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ shown_VVN is_VBZ that_CST crime-rates_NN2 (_( especially_RR for_IF property_NN1 offences_NN2 )_) were_VBDR higher_JJR during_II periods_NN2 of_IO unemployment_NN1 than_CSN of_IO employment_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 suggests_VVZ that_CST holding_VVG constant_JJ other_JJ variables_NN2 ,_, the_AT same_DA youths_NN2 commit_VV0 more_DAR crimes_NN2 while_CS unemployed_JJ ._. 
That_CST there_EX should_VM be_VBI a_AT1 link_NN1 between_II (_( a_ZZ1 )_) unemployment_NN1 and_CC (_( b_ZZ1 )_) relative_JJ poverty_NN1 ,_, and_CC crime_NN1 is_VBZ hardly_RR surprising_JJ ._. 
Both_DB2 exacerbate_VV0 the_AT incentives_NN2 to_TO commit_VVI offences_NN2 and_CC erode_VVI the_AT social_JJ controls_NN2 which_DDQ would_VM otherwise_RR encourage_VVI conformity_NN1 (_( relative_JJ fearfulness_NN1 of_IO sanctions_NN2 ,_, perception_NN1 of_IO the_AT justice_NN1 of_IO the_AT system_NN1 ,_, involvement_NN1 in_II conventional_JJ activities_NN2 and_CC relationships_NN2 ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) ._. 
So_RR it_PPH1 is_VBZ clearly_RR right_JJ to_TO argue_VVI as_CSA Dahrendorf_NP1 does_VDZ that_DD1 the_AT emergence_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 underclass_NN1 excluded_VVD apparently_RR permanently_RR from_II dominant_JJ economic_JJ life_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 potent_JJ condition_NN1 of_IO rising_VVG crime_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ all_DB grist_NN1 to_II the_AT mill_NN1 of_IO orthodox_JJ social_JJ democratic_JJ analyses_NN2 of_IO crime_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 can_VM not_XX be_VBI the_AT whole_JJ story_NN1 ._. 
First_MD ,_, there_EX is_VBZ the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO rising_VVG crime_NN1 during_II the_AT so-called_JJ period_NN1 of_IO affluence_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ this_DD1 indeed_RR which_DDQ prompted_VVD the_AT first_MD '_GE new_JJ realisms_NN2 '_GE in_II criminology._NNU :_: the_AT right-wing_JJ realism_NN1 of_IO James_NP1 Q._NP1 Wilson_NP1 and_CC his_APPGE associates_NN2 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 (_( Wilson_NP1 ,_, 1975_MC )_) ;_; and_CC the_AT '_GE administrative_JJ realism_NN1 '_GE attributed_VVN by_II Jock_NP1 Young_NP1 to_II our_APPGE own_DA Home_NN1 Office_NN1 Research_NN1 Unit_NN1 (_( Young_NP1 ,_, 1986_MC )_) ._. 
If_CS the_AT rate_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 increases_VVZ when_RRQ the_AT adverse_JJ social_JJ conditions_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 been_VBN linked_VVN to_II it_PPH1 are_VBR becoming_VVG ameliorated_JJ ,_, the_AT answer_NN1 must_VM lie_VVI elsewhere_RL :_: either_RR in_II the_AT failure_NN1 of_IO the_AT criminal_JJ justice_NN1 system_NN1 to_TO deliver_VVI sanctions_NN2 with_IW sufficient_JJ certainty_NN1 or_CC positiveness_NN1 (_( the_AT '_GE New_JJ Right_NN1 '_GE analysis_NN1 )_) ,_, or_CC in_II changes_NN2 in_II the_AT availability_NN1 of_IO criminal_JJ opportunities_NN2 in_II the_AT environment_NN1 (_( administrative_JJ criminology_NN1 )_) ._. 
Dahrendorf_NP1 accepts_VVZ both_RR these_DD2 as_CSA possible_JJ contributions_NN2 ,_, but_CCB encompasses_VVZ them_PPHO2 within_II a_AT1 much_RR broader_JJR idea_NN1 :_: the_AT growth_NN1 of_IO anomia_NN1 ,_, the_AT failure_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 social_JJ structure_NN1 to_TO instil_VVI adequate_JJ commitment_NN1 to_II its_APPGE conventional_JJ moral_JJ codes_NN2 ,_, as_CSA crystallized_VVN into_II the_AT criminal_JJ law_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ more_RGR profoundly_RR a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO the_AT deeper_JJR cultural_JJ instilling_NN1 of_IO conformist_NN1 values_NN2 than_CSN of_IO the_AT effective_JJ threat_NN1 of_IO post_JJ21 hoc_JJ22 sanctions_NN2 by_II the_AT criminal_JJ justice_NN1 system_NN1 ._. 
The_AT idea_NN1 of_IO the_AT failure_NN1 of_IO the_AT agencies_NN2 of_IO socialization_NN1 to_TO instil_VVI discipline_NN1 and_CC moral_JJ values_NN2 because_II21 of_II22 the_AT effects_NN2 of_IO post-war_JJ '_GE funk_NN1 '_GE and_CC permissiveness_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 favourite_JJ stalking-horse_NN1 of_IO the_AT right-wing_JJ populist_JJ criminology_NN1 championed_VVN by_II Norman_NP1 Tebbit_NP1 and_CC others_NN2 (_( and_CC in_II a_AT1 more_RGR sophisticated_JJ version_NN1 in_II Douglas_NP1 Hurd_NP1 's_GE Tamworth_NP1 and_CC other_JJ speeches_NN2 )_) ._. 
The_AT Government_NN1 has_VHZ eagerly_RR seized_VVN on_II the_AT '_GE evidence_NN1 '_GE provided_VVN by_II the_AT new_JJ affluent_JJ and_CC rural_JJ as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 urban_JJ '_GE lager_NN1 lout_NN1 '_GE folk-devils_NN2 to_TO deny_VVI any_DD link_NN1 between_II inner-city_JJ deprivation_NN1 and_CC crime_NN1 ._. 
Instead_RR ,_, the_AT finger_NN1 is_VBZ pointed_VVN at_II a_AT1 common_JJ moral_JJ malaise_NN1 due_II21 to_II22 over-liberalization_NN1 and_CC erosion_NN1 of_IO discipline_NN1 (_( Patten_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC )_) ._. 
Because_II21 of_II22 this_DD1 pedigree_NN1 ,_, the_AT opinions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Left_JJ and_CC of_IO liberals_NN2 have_VH0 shied_VVN away_II21 from_II22 examination_NN1 of_IO the_AT issue_NN1 of_IO morality_NN1 in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 crime_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 great_JJ loss_NN1 ,_, because_CS at_II root_NN1 there_EX is_VBZ an_AT1 integral_JJ relation_NN1 between_II the_AT ideas_NN2 of_IO crime_NN1 and_CC morality_NN1 ._. 
Older_JJR Marxist_JJ criminologies_NN2 (_( notably_RR Bonger_NP1 's_GE )_) saw_VVD the_AT link_NN1 between_II economic_JJ conditions_NN2 and_CC crime_NN1 precisely_RR as_CSA lying_VVG in_II the_AT culture_NN1 of_IO egoism_NN1 which_DDQ was_VBDZ stimulated_VVN by_II economic_JJ advance_NN1 under_II capitalism_NN1 (_( Bonger_NP1 ,_, 1916_MC )_) ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ more_RGR evident_JJ than_CSN ever_RR in_II recent_JJ years_NNT2 with_IW the_AT amorally_RR materialistic_JJ culture_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN encouraged_VVN by_II the_AT present_JJ Government_NN1 's_GE economic_JJ and_CC social_JJ policies_NN2 ._. 
(_( Labour_NN1 is_VBZ beginning_VVG to_TO pick_VVI up_RP this_DD1 theme_NN1 :_: Guardian_NN1 ,_, 2_MC January_NPM1 1989_MC ,_, p._NN1 3_MC ._. )_) 
But_CCB uncomfortable_JJ questions_NN2 must_VM also_RR be_VBI raised_VVN about_II the_AT less_RGR traditional_JJ and_CC disciplinarian_NN1 approaches_VVZ to_II education_NN1 ,_, to_II family_NN1 ,_, and_CC to_II other_JJ social_JJ institutions_NN2 which_DDQ Left_VVD and_CC liberal_JJ opinion_NN1 have_VH0 championed_VVN ._. 
What_DDQ values_NN2 do_VD0 we_PPIS2 want_VVI to_TO underpin_VVI social_JJ relations_NN2 and_CC criminal_JJ law_NN1 ?_? 
How_RRQ can_VM these_DD2 be_VBI instilled_VVN ?_? 
These_DD2 problems_NN2 are_VBR ones_NN2 well_RR recognized_VVN and_CC analysed_VVN ,_, though_CS not_XX answered_VVN ,_, by_II ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, Durkheim_NP1 's_GE discussion_NN1 of_IO anomie_NN1 (_( Fenton_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, 1983_MC )_) and_CC Dahrendorf_NP1 's_VBZ of_IO anomia_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA both_RR emphasize_VV0 ,_, moral_JJ education_NN1 can_VM not_XX proceed_VVI effectively_RR in_II an_AT1 economically_RR unjust_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 much_DA1 is_VBZ social_JJ democratic_JJ orthodoxy_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB can_VM less_RGR authoritarian_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO moral_JJ discipline_NN1 be_VBI effective_JJ and_CC if_CS so_RR ,_, how_RRQ are_VBR they_PPHS2 to_TO be_VBI achieved_VVN ?_? 
POLICING_VVG Traditional_JJ Left_JJ analyses_NN2 have_VH0 a_AT1 uniformly_RR negative_JJ image_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 as_II a_AT1 repressive_JJ apparatus_NN1 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 ._. 
'_GE New_JJ Left_JJ realism_NN1 '_GE specifically_RR challenges_VVZ this_DD1 ._. 
The_AT nub_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE argument_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 policing_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 necessary_JJ function_NN1 which_DDQ ideally_RR should_VM control_VVI the_AT criminal_JJ victimization_NN1 disproportionately_RR afflicting_VVG the_AT most_RGT vulnerable_JJ members_NN2 of_IO our_APPGE society_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 can_VM only_RR be_VBI performed_VVN well_RR if_CS there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 profound_JJ democratization_NN1 of_IO the_AT structure_NN1 of_IO accountability_NN1 ._. 
At_RR21 present_RR22 the_AT police_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX perform_VVI their_APPGE task_NN1 satisfactorily_RR ._. 
Their_APPGE initial_JJ response_NN1 to_II the_AT growth_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ stemmed_VVD from_II rising_VVG unemployment_NN1 and_CC inequality_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ heavy-handed_JJ and_CC militaristic_JJ ._. 
This_DD1 was_VBDZ counter-productive_JJ in_II alienating_VVG those_DD2 sectors_NN2 of_IO the_AT community_NN1 whose_DDQGE co-operation_NN1 was_VBDZ essential_JJ to_II criminal_JJ investigation_NN1 ._. 
Only_RR by_II restoring_VVG the_AT confidence_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 sectors_NN2 can_VM crime_NN1 control_NN1 by_II the_AT police_NN2 be_VBI successful_JJ ,_, and_CC the_AT prerequisite_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 is_VBZ democratic_JJ accountability_NN1 to_II local_JJ communities_NN2 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ an_AT1 unquestioned_JJ presumption_NN1 here_RL ,_, which_DDQ pervades_VVZ current_JJ thinking_NN1 about_II the_AT police_NN2 from_II all_DB perspectives_NN2 :_: that_CST the_AT effectiveness_NN1 and_CC quality_NN1 of_IO policing_NN1 have_VH0 declined_VVN ._. 
The_AT evidence_NN1 presented_VVN for_IF this_DD1 by_II the_AT '_GE New_JJ Realists_NN2 '_GE and_CC others_NN2 is_VBZ the_AT seemingly_RR inexorable_JJ rise_NN1 of_IO crime_NN1 and_CC the_AT decline_NN1 of_IO '_GE clear-up_NN1 '_GE rates_NN2 (_( Lea_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
Between_II 1979_MC and_CC 1986_MC the_AT clear-up_JJ rate_NN1 fell_VVD from_II 41_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 to_II 32_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 ._. 
But_CCB the_AT clear-up_JJ rate_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 notoriously_RR inadequate_JJ measure_NN1 of_IO police_NN2 effectiveness_NN1 ,_, open_VV0 to_II manipulation_NN1 by_II many_DA2 factors_NN2 other_II21 than_II22 policing_VVG skills_NN2 (_( Reiner_NP1 ,_, 1988a_FO )_) ._. 
To_TO take_VVI the_AT most_RGT obvious_JJ arithmetical_JJ point_NN1 ,_, if_CS the_AT number_NN1 of_IO crimes_NN2 per_II police_NN2 officer_NN1 increases_NN2 ,_, then_RT ,_, other_JJ things_NN2 being_VBG equal_JJ ,_, the_AT detection_NN1 rate_NN1 must_VM fall_VVI ,_, even_CS21 if_CS22 efficiency_NN1 remains_VVZ constant_JJ ._. 
In_II a_AT1 recent_JJ study_NN1 Lea_NP1 and_CC Young_NP1 recognize_VV0 this_DD1 point_NN1 ,_, and_CC say_VV0 that_CST the_AT best_JJT indicator_NN1 of_IO police_NN2 performance_NN1 in_II crime_NN1 investigation_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT number_NN1 of_IO crimes_NN2 cleared_VVN per_II officer_NN1 (_( Lea_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
What_DDQ they_PPHS2 do_VD0 not_XX say_VVI is_VBZ that_CST on_II this_58 '_GE best_JJT '_GE measure_NN1 ,_, police_NN2 performance_NN1 has_VHZ in_II fact_NN1 improved_VVD marginally_RR ,_, not_XX declined_VVN (_( from_II 7.9_MC in_II 1972_MC to_II 9.6_MC in_II 1986_MC ._. )_) 
Clearly_RR in_II the_AT last_MD twenty_MC years_NNT2 there_EX has_VHZ been_VBN growing_JJ controversy_NN1 about_II fundamental_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO policing_NN1 ,_, unprecedented_JJ in_II this_DD1 century_NNT1 ._. 
(_( Reiner_NN1 ,_, 1985_MC ,_, charts_NN2 and_CC tries_VVZ to_TO explain_VVI this_DD1 ._. )_) 
But_CCB ,_, to_TO put_VVI it_PPH1 provocatively_RR ,_, the_AT growth_NN1 of_IO conflict_NN1 over_II policing_NN1 ,_, and_CC evidence_NN1 of_IO increasing_JJ public_JJ hostility_NN1 and_CC questioning_NN1 ,_, does_VDZ not_XX itself_PPX1 establish_VVI that_CST standards_NN2 of_IO policing_NN1 have_VH0 declined_VVN ._. 
(_( When_CS looking_VVG at_II crime_NN1 trends_NN2 criminologists_NN2 are_VBR usually_RR hesitant_JJ about_II inferring_VVG objective_JJ worsening_JJ of_IO problems_NN2 on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO moral_JJ panics_NN2 ._. )_) 
There_EX are_VBR many_DA2 reasons_NN2 to_TO expect_VVI a_JJ21 priori_JJ22 that_CST standards_NN2 of_IO policing_NN1 should_VM have_VHI improved_VVN ._. 
There_EX has_VHZ ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, been_VBN a_AT1 progressive_JJ improvement_NN1 in_II the_AT educational_JJ standards_NN2 of_IO recruits_NN2 ,_, and_CC in_II the_AT quantity_NN1 and_CC quality_NN1 of_IO police_NN2 training_NN1 ._. 
Perhaps_RR it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX so_RG much_DA1 that_CST police_NN2 behaviour_NN1 has_VHZ deteriorated_VVN as_CSA that_DD1 public_JJ expectations_NN2 have_VH0 risen_VVN ._. 
What_DDQ ,_, it_PPH1 will_VM be_VBI said_VVN ,_, about_II the_AT '_" obvious_58 '_GE evidence_NN1 of_IO brutality_NN1 and_CC corruption_NN1 ?_? 
While_CS there_EX are_VBR ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, many_DA2 recent_JJ causes_NN2 clbres_NN2 of_IO police_NN2 abuse_NN1 (_( Reiner_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC ,_, ch._NNU 2._MC 2_MC )_) ,_, memoirs_NN2 of_IO earlier_JJR times_NNT2 (_( e.g._REX Mark_NP1 ,_, 1978_MC ;_; Daley_NP1 ,_, 1986_MC )_) suggest_VV0 that_CST there_EX was_VBDZ an_AT1 enormous_JJ extent_NN1 of_IO subterranean_JJ wrong-doing_NN1 in_II the_AT cosy_JJ days_NNT2 of_IO the_AT traditional_JJ bobby_NN1 on_II the_AT beat_NN1 ._. 
For_IF obvious_JJ reasons_NN2 the_AT dangers_NN2 of_IO such_DA malpractice_NN1 are_VBR endemic_JJ in_II policing_NN1 ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI '_GE respectable_JJ fears_NN2 '_GE about_II it_PPH1 which_DDQ fluctuate_VV0 more_DAR than_CSN the_AT extent_NN1 of_IO abuse_NN1 ._. 
In_CS41 so_CS42 far_CS43 as_CS44 tactics_NN2 have_VH0 evidently_RR changed_VVN (_( for_REX21 instance_REX22 in_II public_JJ order_NN1 policing_NN1 :_: McCabe_NP1 et_RA21 al._RA22 ,_, 1988_MC ;_; Northam_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC )_) ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ at_RR21 least_RR22 as_CSA plausible_JJ to_TO see_VVI these_DD2 as_II a_AT1 reactive_JJ response_NN1 to_II rising_VVG crime_NN1 and_CC disorder_NN1 ,_, as_CSA the_AT spontaneous_JJ cause_NN1 of_IO them_PPHO2 ._. 
The_AT '_GE New_JJ Realists_NN2 '_GE see_VV0 policing_VVG as_II the_AT key_NN1 to_II crime_NN1 control_NN1 ,_, and_CC accountability_NN1 as_II the_AT key_NN1 to_II good_JJ policing_NN1 ._. 
Paradoxically_RR ,_, this_DD1 comes_VVZ at_II a_AT1 time_NNT1 when_RRQ both_DB2 the_AT Conservative_JJ Government_NN1 and_CC the_AT police_NN2 themselves_PPX2 are_VBR much_RR more_RGR cautious_JJ about_II the_AT potential_JJ contribution_NN1 of_IO policing_NN1 ._. 
Police_NN2 numbers_NN2 and_CC resources_NN2 are_VBR no_RR21 longer_RR22 seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 vade-mecum_NN1 by_II the_AT police_NN2 or_CC the_AT Government_NN1 (_( as_CSA Hurd_NP1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, made_VVD clear_JJ in_II his_APPGE speech_NN1 to_II the_AT Police_NN2 Foundation_NN1 Conference_NN1 in_II Oxford_NP1 on_II 11_MC April_NPM1 1988_MC )_) hardly_RR surprising_JJ after_II nine_MC '_GE wasted_JJ '_GE years_NNT2 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ in_II fact_NN1 a_AT1 remarkable_JJ cross-party_JJ congruence_NN1 on_II the_AT idea_NN1 that_CST the_AT effectiveness_NN1 of_IO criminal_JJ justice_NN1 and_CC policing_NN1 depends_VVZ on_II the_AT '_GE involvement_NN1 of_IO the_AT community_NN1 '_GE ,_, though_CS the_AT Government_NN1 denies_VVZ that_CST this_DD1 requires_VVZ full_JJ local_JJ democratic_JJ control_NN1 ,_, as_II31 opposed_II32 to_II33 consultation_NN1 ._. 
I_PPIS1 am_VBM myself_PPX1 sceptical_JJ about_II whether_CSW the_AT local_JJ democratic_JJ control_NN1 espoused_VVN by_II the_AT '_GE New_JJ Realists_NN2 '_GE would_VM have_VHI the_AT dramatic_JJ confidence-building_JJ effect_NN1 claimed_VVD ._. 
In_II any_DD case_NN1 ,_, the_AT extent_NN1 of_IO central_JJ influence_NN1 over_II policing_NN1 has_VHZ grown_VVN remorselessly_RR and_CC may_VM not_XX be_VBI reversible_JJ (_( Reiner_NP1 ,_, 1988b_FO ,_, 1989_MC )_) ._. 
This_DD1 implies_VVZ that_CST the_AT accountability_NN1 of_IO central_JJ government_NN1 in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 policing_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT more_RGR important_JJ problem_NN1 to_TO address_VVI ._. 
CONCLUSION_NN1 '_GE New_JJ realism_NN1 '_GE ,_, like_II the_AT old_JJ '_GE law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 '_GE Conservatism_NN1 ,_, rejects_VVZ the_AT traditional_JJ social_JJ democratic_JJ analysis_NN1 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ no_AT panacea_NN1 for_IF crime_NN1 through_II criminal_JJ justice_NN1 policy_NN1 ,_, whether_CSW of_IO the_AT Left_JJ or_CC the_AT Right_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB the_AT essential_JJ precondition_NN1 for_IF order_NN1 is_VBZ economic_JJ justice_NN1 and_CC welfare_NN1 ,_, without_IW which_DDQ moral_JJ socialization_NN1 can_VM not_XX take_VVI root_NN1 as_CSA other_II21 than_II22 fragile_JJ coercion_NN1 ._. 
None_RR31 the_RR32 less_RR33 ,_, in_II a_AT1 just_JJ and_CC thriving_JJ economy_NN1 ,_, an_AT1 effective_JJ criminal_JJ justice_NN1 system_NN1 has_VHZ important_JJ functions_NN2 to_TO perform_VVI ._. 
It_PPH1 must_VM show_VVI that_DD1 serious_JJ offences_NN2 against_II the_AT criminal_JJ law_NN1 will_VM be_VBI effectively_RR dealt_VVN with_IW ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX clear_JJ that_CST the_AT declining_JJ overall_JJ effectiveness_NN1 of_IO the_AT police_NN2 and_CC of_IO criminal_JJ justice_NN1 is_VBZ because_II21 of_II22 internal_JJ failings_NN2 so_RR31 much_RR32 as_RR33 because_II21 of_II22 the_AT overwhelming_JJ growth_NN1 of_IO work-load_NN1 due_II21 to_II22 growing_VVG social_JJ and_CC economic_JJ inequality_NN1 coupled_VVN with_IW moral_JJ deregulation_NN1 ._. 
'_GE The_AT Inner-City_JJ Battlefield_NP1 :_: Politics_NN1 ,_, Ideology_NN1 ,_, and_CC Social_JJ Relations_NN2 Susanne_NP1 MacGregor_NP1 INTRODUCTION_NN1 From_II the_AT moment_NN1 in_II 1979_MC when_RRQ Mrs_NNB Thatcher_NP1 swept_VVD to_II power_NN1 on_II a_AT1 wave_NN1 of_IO uncollected_JJ garbage_NN1 following_VVG the_AT '_GE winter_NNT1 of_IO discontent_NN1 '_GE ,_, her_APPGE radical_JJ assault_NN1 on_II social_JJ democracy_NN1 and_CC the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 continuing_JJ theme_NN1 of_IO the_AT politics_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1980s_MC2 ._. 
In_II her_APPGE famed_JJ speech_NN1 on_II election_NN1 night_NNT1 1987_MC ,_, as_CSA she_PPHS1 rallied_VVD her_APPGE party_NN1 troops_NN2 on_II the_AT steps_NN2 of_IO Party_NN1 Headquarters_NN not_XX to_TO rest_VVI on_II their_APPGE laurels_NN2 but_CCB to_TO continue_VVI the_AT fight_NN1 (_( they_PPHS2 were_VBDR to_TO be_VBI allowed_VVN one_MC1 night_NNT1 of_IO '_GE marvellous_JJ partying_NN1 '_GE but_CCB must_VM start_VVI back_RP the_AT next_MD day_NNT1 with_IW renewed_JJ vigour_NN1 )_) ,_, she_PPHS1 announced_VVD that_DD1 '_VBZ we_PPIS2 've_VH0 got_VVN a_AT1 big_JJ job_NN1 to_TO do_VDI in_II some_DD of_IO those_DD2 inner_JJ cities_NN2 ..._... and_CC politically_RR ,_, we_PPIS2 've_VH0 got_VVN to_TO get_VVI back_RP in_II there_RL we_PPIS2 want_VV0 to_TO win_VVI those_DD2 too_RR '_GE ._. 
The_AT connection_NN1 between_II her_APPGE public_JJ policies_NN2 and_CC the_AT political_JJ arithmetic_NN1 was_VBDZ precise_JJ and_CC clear_JJ ._. 
In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 ,_, I_PPIS1 shall_VM argue_VVI that_CST the_AT concept_NN1 '_GE inner_JJ city_NN1 '_GE is_VBZ a_AT1 fundamentally_RR ideological_JJ category_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ often_RR presented_VVN as_II a_AT1 scientific_JJ term_NN1 ,_, relating_VVG to_II features_NN2 of_IO urban_JJ development_NN1 ,_, its_APPGE use_NN1 is_VBZ better_RRR understood_VVN as_II part_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 ideological_JJ set_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN borrowed_VVN from_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ._. 
The_AT use_NN1 of_IO the_AT very_JJ term_NN1 is_VBZ therefore_RR questionable_JJ ._. 
As_CSA used_VVN in_II politics_NN1 and_CC social_JJ policy_NN1 in_II contemporary_JJ Britain_NP1 ,_, the_AT concept_NN1 '_GE inner_JJ city_NN1 '_GE is_VBZ part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 move_NN1 to_II a_AT1 more_RGR conservative_JJ and_CC punitive_JJ set_NN1 of_IO social_JJ practices_NN2 and_CC attitudes_NN2 ._. 
THE_AT '_GE INNER_JJ CITY_NN1 '_GE The_AT '_GE inner_JJ city_NN1 '_GE is_VBZ a_AT1 representation_NN1 which_DDQ serves_VVZ as_II a_AT1 focus_NN1 for_IF politics_NN1 and_CC policy_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 public_JJ issue_NN1 which_DDQ represents_VVZ a_AT1 constellation_NN1 of_IO social_JJ worries_NN2 ,_, to_TO do_VDI with_IW urban_JJ poverty_NN1 ,_, squalor_NN1 ,_, ill-health_NN1 ,_, deprivation_NN1 ,_, decay_VV0 ,_, crime_NN1 ,_, social_JJ disintegration_NN1 ,_, and_CC social_JJ polarization_NN1 ._. 
The_AT core_NN1 issue_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO urban_JJ poverty_NN1 ._. 
Poverty_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 continuing_JJ problem_NN1 in_II post-war_JJ Britain_NP1 ._. 
Its_APPGE size_NN1 and_CC shape_NN1 have_VH0 varied_VVN and_CC the_AT names_NN2 used_VMK to_TO describe_VVI it_PPH1 have_VH0 varied_VVN ._. 
What_DDQ we_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN in_II the_AT 1980s_MC2 is_VBZ a_AT1 process_NN1 by_II which_DDQ poverty_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN redefined_VVN as_CSA to_TO do_VDI with_IW the_AT '_GE inner_JJ city_NN1 '_GE ._. 
This_DD1 involves_VVZ an_AT1 association_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 with_IW crime_NN1 and_CC violence_NN1 ,_, and_CC with_IW decay_NN1 and_CC backwardness_NN1 ._. 
The_AT redefinition_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 as_CSA urban_JJ poverty_NN1 and_CC as_II a_AT1 problem_NN1 of_IO the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 reflects_VVZ also_RR a_AT1 change_NN1 in_II perceptions_NN2 of_IO appropriate_JJ policy_NN1 responses_NN2 ._. 
Specifically_RR ,_, the_AT concentration_NN1 on_II the_AT spatial_JJ dimension_NN1 ,_, the_AT grounded_JJ location_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 in_II certain_JJ areas_NN2 ,_, arose_VVD when_RRQ attempts_NN2 were_VBDR being_VBG made_VVN to_TO restrict_VVI the_AT scope_NN1 of_IO public_JJ policy_NN1 and_CC the_AT extent_NN1 of_IO public_JJ expenditure_NN1 ,_, to_TO limit_VVI its_APPGE focus_NN1 to_II targeted_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
However_RR ,_, reality_NN1 intrudes_VVZ on_II such_DA constructions_NN2 ,_, as_CSA indicated_VVN by_II the_AT gradual_JJ widening_NN1 of_IO the_AT category_NN1 '_GE inner_JJ city_NN1 '_GE to_TO refer_VVI also_RR to_II '_GE outer_JJ estates_NN2 '_GE and_CC then_RT to_II whole_JJ cities_NN2 ,_, like_II Bradford_NP1 ;_; in_II some_DD cases_NN2 it_PPH1 is_VBZ even_RR used_VVN as_II a_AT1 code_NN1 for_IF whole_JJ regions_NN2 of_IO deprivation_NN1 in_II31 conjunction_II32 with_II33 that_DD1 other_JJ metaphor_NN1 ,_, the_AT North-South_NN1 divide_NN1 ._. 
The_AT battle_NN1 of_IO ideas_NN2 is_VBZ about_II the_AT very_JJ categories_NN2 to_TO be_VBI used_VVN in_II policy_NN1 debate_NN1 ._. 
Those_DD2 who_PNQS prefer_VV0 limited_JJ ,_, selective_JJ superficial_JJ policies_NN2 exert_VV0 pressure_NN1 to_TO restrict_VVI the_AT scope_NN1 of_IO the_AT categories_NN2 ._. 
Those_DD2 arguing_VVG for_IF more_RGR fundamental_JJ change_NN1 ,_, tackling_VVG the_AT causes_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 merely_RR the_AT symptoms_NN2 of_IO social_JJ distress_NN1 ,_, utilize_VV0 categories_NN2 embracing_VVG wider_JJR sections_NN2 of_IO society_NN1 ,_, extending_VVG from_II the_AT still_JJ limited_JJ concept_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE bottom_NN1 third_MD '_GE to_II wider_JJR notions_NN2 of_IO the_AT '_GE public_NN1 '_GE and_CC '_GE citizens_NN2 '_GE ._. 
This_DD1 chapter_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 double_JJ focus_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 aims_VVZ to_TO show_VVI that_CST closely_RR related_VVN to_II the_AT objective_NN1 of_IO resurrecting_VVG conservative_JJ social_JJ policies_NN2 is_VBZ a_AT1 political_JJ method_NN1 which_DDQ involves_VVZ an_AT1 attempt_NN1 to_TO change_VVI Britain_NP1 's_GE political_JJ landscape_NN1 ._. 
Mrs_NNB Thatcher_NP1 's_GE expressed_JJ aim_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO rid_VVI the_AT country_NN1 of_IO socialism_NN1 forever_RT ,_, and_CC part_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 involved_VVD destroying_VVG the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 's_GE local_JJ government_NN1 base_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1980s_MC2 ,_, Labour_JJ local_JJ authorities_NN2 had_VHD emerged_VVN as_CSA defenders_NN2 of_IO the_AT poor_JJ and_CC of_IO public_JJ services_NN2 ._. 
The_AT third_MD term_NN1 reforms_NN2 to_II local_JJ government_NN1 ,_, the_AT '_GE inner-city_JJ '_GE policies_NN2 ,_, were_VBDR much_RR less_RRR about_II doing_VDG good_JJ for_IF the_AT poor_JJ and_CC arresting_VVG decline_NN1 and_CC decay_NN1 than_CSN about_II undermining_VVG Labour_NN1 's_GE power_NN1 bases_NN2 ._. 
The_AT flagship_NN1 reform_NN1 ,_, the_AT poll_NN1 tax_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT related_JJ flotilla_NN1 of_IO changes_NN2 affecting_VVG privatization_NN1 and_CC contracting-out_NN1 ,_, education_NN1 ,_, housing_VVG and_CC social_JJ services_NN2 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 specific_JJ '_GE inner-city_JJ initiatives_NN2 '_GE ,_, were_VBDR designed_VVN to_TO change_VVI the_AT political_JJ structure_NN1 and_CC quite_RG precisely_RR to_TO replace_VVI local_JJ democracy_NN1 by_II the_AT '_GE market_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT explicitly_RR anti-democratic_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO the_AT radical_JJ Right_JJ project_NN1 was_VBDZ put_VVN succinctly_RR in_II an_AT1 Institute_NN1 of_IO Economic_JJ Affairs_NN2 pamphlet_NN1 :_: it_PPH1 is_VBZ clear_JJ that_CST the_AT machinery_NN1 of_IO representative_JJ parliamentary_JJ democracy_NN1 has_VHZ so_RG far_RR proved_VVN unsuitable_JJ as_II the_AT mechanism_NN1 for_IF translating_VVG personal_JJ preferences_NN2 into_II day-to-day_JJ practice_NN1 ._. 
Profoundly_RR disturbing_JJ questions_NN2 must_VM be_VBI raised_VVN about_II the_AT imperfections_NN2 or_CC obstacles_NN2 in_II the_AT representative_JJ political_JJ process_NN1 that_CST frustrate_VV0 the_AT wishes_NN2 of_IO the_AT sovereign_JJ populace_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ ostensibly_RR designed_VVN to_TO represent_VVI ._. 
(_( Harris_NP1 and_CC Seldon_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC ,_, p._NN1 64_MC )_) Rather_CS21 than_CS22 propose_VVI ways_NN2 in_II which_DDQ representative_JJ democracy_NN1 could_VM be_VBI strengthened_VVN and_CC improved_JJ ,_, these_DD2 authors_NN2 concluded_VVD :_: '_GE the_AT weight_NN1 of_IO the_AT evidence_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST a_AT1 vote_NN1 is_VBZ much_RR less_RGR effective_JJ than_CSN purchasing_NN1 power_NN1 ..._... the_AT market_NN1 is_VBZ potentially_RR more_RGR democratic_JJ than_CSN the_AT state_NN1 '_GE (_( p._NNU 65_MC )_) ._. 
DIVIDED_JJ BRITAIN_NP1 :_: THE_AT ASSAULT_NN1 ON_II THE_AT WELFARE_NN1 STATE_NN1 Britain_NP1 has_VHZ become_VVN an_AT1 increasingly_RR divided_JJ kingdom_NN1 under_II Mrs_NNB Thatcher_NP1 :_: the_AT years_NNT2 197987_MC witnessed_VVD major_JJ changes_NN2 in_II Britain_NP1 's_GE electoral_JJ geography_NN1 ,_, reflecting_VVG growing_JJ socio-economic_JJ polarization_NN1 the_AT divide_NN1 between_II the_AT relatively_RR prosperous_JJ and_CC the_AT relatively_RR deprived_JJ areas_NN2 widened_VVN (_( Walker_NP1 and_CC Walker_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
Johnston_NP1 and_CC his_APPGE colleagues_NN2 (_( 1988_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 3257_MC )_) have_VH0 argued_VVN that_CST this_DD1 polarisation_NN1 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE potential_JJ political_JJ consequences_NN2 was_VBDZ recognised_VVN by_II the_AT Conservative_JJ Government_NN1 almost_RR certainly_RR well_RR before_II the_AT results_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1987_MC general_JJ election_NN1 were_VBDR known_VVN ..._... the_AT development_NN1 of_IO policies_NN2 to_TO tackle_VVI the_AT economic_JJ run-down_NN1 and_CC social_JJ deprivation_NN1 of_IO inner_JJ city_NN1 areas_NN2 was_VBDZ identified_VVN as_II a_AT1 major_JJ thrust_NN1 for_IF the_AT new_JJ government_NN1 and_CC many_DA2 new_JJ initiatives_NN2 were_VBDR conceived_VVN in_II the_AT first_MD weeks_NNT2 of_IO the_AT new_JJ Parliament_NN1 ._. 
To_II a_AT1 large_JJ extent_NN1 ,_, these_DD2 continued_JJ and_CC crystallised_VVD earlier_JJR attempts_NN2 to_TO tackle_VVI similar_JJ problems_NN2 ..._... 
The_AT nature_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 policies_NN2 with_IW their_APPGE emphases_NN2 on_II private_JJ sector_NN1 developments_NN2 ,_, home_NN1 ownership_NN1 and_CC small_JJ businesses_NN2 ,_, suggests_VVZ that_CST in_RR21 part_RR22 at_II least_DAT the_AT Government_NN1 is_VBZ seeking_VVG to_TO produce_VVI electoral_JJ change_NN1 by_II introducing_VVG traditional_JJ Conservative_JJ supporters_NN2 to_II areas_NN2 where_RRQ the_AT party_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN very_RG weak_JJ as_CSA ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, in_II many_DA2 of_IO the_AT residential_JJ developments_NN2 in_II London_NP1 's_GE Docklands_NP1 ._. 
Mrs_NNB Thatcher_NP1 's_GE identification_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE inner_JJ cities_NN2 '_GE as_CSA the_AT focus_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE third_MD term_NN1 's_GE agenda_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX therefore_RR a_AT1 new_JJ conversion_NN1 to_II the_AT need_NN1 to_TO do_VDI something_PN1 about_II urban_JJ poverty_NN1 ,_, squalor_NN1 ,_, and_CC alienation_NN1 ._. 
Rather_RR it_PPH1 was_VBDZ one_MC1 more_DAR step_NN1 in_II the_AT step_NN1 by_II step_NN1 approach_NN1 to_II the_AT reform_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 local_JJ government_NN1 and_CC the_AT politics_NN1 and_CC values_NN2 of_IO British_JJ society_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN followed_VVN through_II consistently_RR and_CC vigorously_RR throughout_II the_AT 1980s_MC2 ._. 
For_IF the_AT third_MD term_NN1 ,_, the_AT key_JJ policy_NN1 areas_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ would_VM tackle_VVI the_AT '_GE really_RR big_JJ job_NN1 '_GE of_IO the_AT '_GE inner_JJ cities_NN2 '_GE ,_, were_VBDR named_VVN as_II the_AT policies_NN2 for_IF local_JJ government_NN1 ,_, education_NN1 ,_, and_CC housing_NN1 ._. 
Much_DA1 of_IO the_AT right-wing_JJ discussion_NN1 of_IO policies_NN2 for_IF inner_JJ cities_NN2 has_VHZ been_VBN framed_VVN as_CS21 though_CS22 the_AT attack_NN1 was_VBDZ solely_RR on_II two_MC forms_NN2 of_IO '_GE extremists_NN2 '_GE :_: one_PN1 ,_, the_AT '_GE Loony_JJ Left_NN1 '_GE and_CC the_AT other_JJ ,_, disorderly_JJ ,_, criminal_JJ elements_NN2 fomenting_VVG riots_NN2 and_CC social_JJ disorder_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB the_AT Thatcherite_JJ counter-revolution_NN1 is_VBZ much_DA1 more_DAR all-encompassing_NN1 :_: it_PPH1 is_VBZ an_AT1 assault_NN1 on_II social_JJ democracy_NN1 and_CC all_DB that_CST that_DD1 term_NN1 entails_VVZ ,_, just_RR as_RG much_DA1 if_CS not_XX more_RGR so_RR than_CSN on_II simply_RR '_GE taking_VVG out_RP '_GE pockets_NN2 of_IO resistance_NN1 in_II specific_JJ local_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
Key_JJ state_NN1 agencies_NN2 in_II the_AT social_JJ democratic_JJ arrangements_NN2 identified_VVN for_IF attack_NN1 were_VBDR local_JJ authorities_NN2 ._. 
TACKLING_VVG THE_AT TOWN_NN1 HALLS_NN2 The_AT programme_NN1 of_IO reforms_NN2 to_II local_JJ government_NN1 ,_, to_TO reduce_VVI the_AT power_NN1 and_CC status_NN1 of_IO local_JJ authorities_NN2 ,_, is_VBZ part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 planned_JJ programme_NN1 which_DDQ ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ intended_VVN ,_, will_VM stretch_VVI into_II the_AT 1990s_MC2 ._. 
Because_CS some_DD reforms_NN2 are_VBR hidden_VVN from_II public_JJ view_NN1 over_II the_AT horizon_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX mean_VVI that_CST they_PPHS2 have_VH0 not_XX been_VBN thought_VVN out_RP and_CC designed_VVN ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 move_VV0 along_RP the_AT road_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 will_VM come_VVI into_II sight_NN1 ._. 
Mrs_NNB Thatcher_NP1 herself_PPX1 supported_VVD this_DD1 reading_NN1 :_: '_" I_PPIS1 'm_VBM here_RL because_CS I_PPIS1 believe_VV0 in_II things_NN2 because_CS I_PPIS1 'm_VBM always_RR thinking_VVG forward_RL '_GE (_( speaking_VVG on_II Panorama_NN1 ,_, 25_MC January_NPM1 1988_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT Bradford_NP1 model_NN1 represents_VVZ Thatcherism_NN1 in_II action_NN1 in_II the_AT '_GE inner_JJ city_NN1 '_GE ._. 
(_( Bradford_NP1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 was_VBDZ frequently_RR described_VVN as_II an_AT1 '_GE inner_JJ city_NN1 '_GE in_II news_NN1 broadcasts_NN2 in_II 1988_MC ,_, demonstrating_VVG clearly_RR that_CST the_AT term_NN1 signified_JJ '_GE poverty_NN1 and_CC decline_NN1 '_GE rather_II21 than_II22 a_AT1 specific_JJ area_NN1 in_II a_AT1 city_NN1 ._. )_) 
Shortly_RR after_II the_AT Tories_NN2 won_VVD control_NN1 of_IO the_AT council_NN1 in_II September_NPM1 1988_MC ,_, almost_RR 6_MC million_NNO of_IO cuts_NN2 in_II local_JJ authority_NN1 expenditure_NN1 were_VBDR announced_VVN ._. 
The_AT Leader_NN1 of_IO the_AT Council_NN1 ,_, Eric_NP1 Pickles_NN2 ,_, speaking_VVG at_II the_AT Tory_JJ Conference_NN1 in_II 1988_MC ,_, had_VHD promised_VVN that_CST these_DD2 reforms_NN2 would_VM place_VVI the_AT customer_NN1 first_MD and_CC that_DD1 Labour_NN1 would_VM be_VBI swept_VVN from_II control_NN1 of_IO the_AT cities_NN2 and_CC Town_NN1 Halls_NN2 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 constellation_NN1 ,_, the_AT Right_JJ identifies_NN1 housing_VVG as_II21 of_II22 particular_JJ significance_NN1 ._. 
The_AT long_JJ period_NN1 of_IO domination_NN1 by_II municipal_JJ socialism_NN1 is_VBZ said_VVN to_TO have_VHI produced_VVN a_AT1 dependence_NN1 on_II the_AT local_JJ authority_NN1 ,_, especially_RR through_II provision_NN1 of_IO council_NN1 housing_NN1 ._. 
Low_JJ rents_NN2 are_VBR seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 form_NN1 of_IO bribery_NN1 of_IO the_AT electorate_NN1 ._. 
And_CC this_DD1 special_JJ culture_NN1 is_VBZ thought_VVN to_TO be_VBI found_VVN in_II a_AT1 particularly_RR acute_JJ and_CC virulent_JJ form_NN1 in_II Scotland_NP1 and_CC in_II some_DD parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT North_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 ._. 
Michael_NP1 Heseltine_NP1 was_VBDZ the_AT main_JJ spokesman_NN1 of_IO the_AT Conservative_JJ approach_NN1 to_II the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 until_CS his_APPGE ministerial_JJ career_NN1 was_VBDZ abruptly_RR interrupted_VVN by_II the_AT Westland_NP1 affair_NN1 in_II 1986_MC ._. 
He_PPHS1 has_VHZ remarked_VVN on_II the_AT apparent_JJ fact_NN1 that_CST the_AT '_GE Loony_JJ Left_NN1 '_GE were_VBDR '_GE increasingly_RR to_TO be_VBI found_VVN in_II the_AT more_RGR deprived_JJ and_CC distressed_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO our_APPGE country_NN1 '_GE (_( Heseltine_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC ,_, p._NN1 131_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT Government_NN1 had_VHD ,_, he_PPHS1 said_VVD ,_, four_MC choices_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 could_VM let_VVI conditions_NN2 worsen_VVI ;_; or_CC they_PPHS2 could_VM move_VVI power_NN1 back_RP to_II national_JJ government_NN1 ;_; or_CC they_PPHS2 could_VM re-organise_VVI the_AT electoral_JJ boundaries_NN2 so_CS21 that_CS22 the_AT irresponsible_JJ Left_NN1 loses_VVZ its_APPGE tight_JJ inner_JJ urban_JJ constituencies_NN2 ;_; or_CC they_PPHS2 could_VM push_VVI power_NN1 out_RP beyond_II local_JJ government_NN1 and_CC into_II the_AT hands_NN2 of_IO the_AT people_NN whom_PNQO it_PPH1 is_VBZ elected_VVN to_II serve._NNU (_( p._NNU 132_MC )_) ._. 
In_II practice_NN1 ,_, all_DB four_MC of_IO these_DD2 options_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN pursued_VVN by_II the_AT Thatcher_NP1 administrations_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT fourth_MD option_NN1 which_DDQ the_AT Tories_NN2 emphasized_VVN in_II their_APPGE rhetoric_NN1 ._. 
Local_JJ authorities_NN2 would_VM be_VBI encouraged_VVN to_TO see_VVI themselves_PPX2 primarily_RR as_58 '_GE service-providers_NN2 '_GE ._. 
Once_RR this_DD1 was_VBDZ conceded_VVN ,_, the_AT next_MD step_NN1 would_VM be_VBI to_TO move_VVI to_II their_APPGE becoming_JJ semi-independent_JJ public_JJ bodies_NN2 (_( much_RR the_AT same_DA might_VM happen_VVI to_II hospitals_NN2 and_CC other_JJ public_JJ services_NN2 )_) ,_, with_IW the_AT '_GE freedom_NN1 to_TO manage_VVI '_" without_IW regard_NN1 to_II political_JJ pressure_NN1 from_II local_JJ electors_NN2 or_CC '_GE vested_JJ interests_NN2 '_GE (_( trade_NN1 unions_NN2 and_CC professionals_NN2 )_) and_CC the_AT freedom_NN1 to_TO cut_VVI labour_NN1 costs_NN2 (_( the_AT main_JJ item_NN1 in_II service_NN1 budgets_NN2 )_) by_II paying_VVG people_NN only_RR what_DDQ it_PPH1 was_VBDZ necessary_JJ to_TO pay_VVI them_PPHO2 in_II that_DD1 local_JJ market_NN1 ._. 
National_JJ pay_NN1 settlements_NN2 and_CC negotiating_VVG arrangements_NN2 hinder_VV0 that_CST process_VV0 which_DDQ would_VM be_VBI improved_VVN ,_, they_PPHS2 argue_VV0 ,_, by_II '_GE flexibility_NN1 '_GE in_II wage-rates_NN2 and_CC local_JJ pay_NN1 bargaining_NN1 ._. 
The_AT economics_NN1 of_IO the_AT enterprise_NN1 culture_NN1 and_CC the_AT shape_NN1 of_IO service_NN1 provision_NN1 are_VBR thus_RR integrally_RR related_VVN ,_, two_MC sides_NN2 of_IO the_AT same_DA coin_NN1 ._. 
And_CC such_DA changes_NN2 mark_VV0 a_AT1 decisive_JJ shift_NN1 away_II21 from_II22 local_JJ democracy_NN1 ._. 
INSTITUTIONAL_JJ REFORM_NN1 AND_CC SOCIAL_JJ ENGINEERING_NN1 Two_MC developments_NN2 opposition_NN1 to_II central_JJ government_NN1 policies_NN2 by_II Labour_JJ local_JJ councils_NN2 ,_, and_CC urban_JJ riots_NN2 forced_VVD the_AT Government_NN1 to_TO develop_VVI policies_NN2 for_IF the_AT '_GE inner_JJ cities_NN2 '_GE (_( Heseltine_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
That_DD1 riots_VVZ and_CC local_JJ socialism_NN1 were_VBDR both_RR found_VVN in_II the_AT most_RGT acutely_RR stressed_VVN parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 is_VBZ no_AT accident_NN1 ._. 
Each_DD1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 form_NN1 of_IO opposition_NN1 to_II the_AT direction_NN1 and_CC effects_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 policy_NN1 and_CC protest_VV0 at_II economic_JJ changes_NN2 ._. 
Hence_RR the_AT Tory_JJ Government_NN1 's_GE need_NN1 to_TO try_VVI to_TO destroy_VVI such_DA opposition_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 could_VM be_VBI done_VDN by_II beating_VVG down_RP ,_, as_CSA in_II the_AT assertion_NN1 of_IO dominance_NN1 over_II local_JJ authorities_NN2 ._. 
Or_CC it_PPH1 could_VM be_VBI done_VDN through_II fragmentation_NN1 ._. 
Fragmentation_NN1 takes_VVZ place_NN1 where_RRQ blocks_NN2 of_IO low-income_JJ poor_JJ housing_NN1 and_CC their_APPGE associated_JJ populations_NN2 are_VBR broken_VVN up_RP and_CC dispersed_JJ ,_, either_RR through_II deliberate_JJ slum_NN1 clearance_NN1 and_CC dispersal_NN1 of_IO population_NN1 ,_, as_CSA in_II the_AT late_JJ nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 (_( Stedman_NP1 Jones_NP1 ,_, 1971_MC )_) ;_; or_CC by_II the_AT decentralizing_JJ effects_NN2 of_IO the_AT policies_NN2 of_IO earlier_JJR post-war_JJ years_NNT2 ,_, overspill_VV0 outer_JJ estates_NN2 and_CC new_JJ towns_NN2 ;_; or_CC through_II the_AT later_JJR processes_NN2 of_IO '_GE gentrification_NN1 '_GE (_( Glass_NP1 ,_, 1964_MC )_) a_AT1 term_NN1 first_MD used_VVN by_II Ruth_NP1 Glass_NP1 but_CCB popularized_VVD in_II the_AT late_JJ 1970s_MC2 i.e._REX the_AT emergence_NN1 of_IO new_JJ wealthy_JJ areas_NN2 as_CSA in_II Islington_NP1 or_CC Docklands_NP1 and_CC the_AT displacement_NN1 of_IO the_AT poorer_JJR local_JJ population_NN1 ,_, likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI further_RRR encouraged_VVN by_II the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO the_AT poll_NN1 tax_NN1 ._. 
Both_DB2 the_AT assertion_NN1 of_IO central_JJ authority_NN1 and_CC the_AT fragmentation_NN1 of_IO local_JJ social_JJ structures_NN2 and_CC economics_NN1 are_VBR integral_JJ to_II the_AT overall_JJ desire_NN1 to_TO use_VVI power_NN1 to_TO restructure_VVI social_JJ arrangements_NN2 in_II such_DA a_AT1 way_NN1 that_CST certain_JJ interests_NN2 are_VBR favoured_VVN over_II others_NN2 ,_, to_TO reward_VVI supporters_NN2 ,_, and_CC to_TO maintain_VVI these_DD2 arrangements_NN2 by_II using_VVG social_JJ institutions_NN2 to_TO entrench_VVI an_AT1 alternative_JJ set_NN1 of_IO ideas_NN2 ,_, those_DD2 of_IO the_AT '_GE enterprise_NN1 culture_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT Thatcherite_JJ counter-revolution_NN1 should_VM be_VBI seen_VVN ,_, then_RT ,_, as_CSA consisting_VVG of_IO a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO interrelated_JJ policies_NN2 designed_VVN to_TO restructure_VVI taxation_NN1 ,_, restructure_VV0 public_JJ expenditure_NN1 ,_, reshape_VV0 the_AT welfare_NN1 services_NN2 ,_, and_CC curb_VV0 the_AT power_NN1 of_IO professionals_NN2 ,_, trade_NN1 unions_NN2 ,_, and_CC local_JJ authorities_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 are_VBR closely_RR interrelated_JJ and_CC the_AT Government_NN1 's_GE plans_NN2 for_IF the_AT '_GE inner_JJ cities_NN2 '_GE can_NN1 not_XX be_VBI understood_VVN unless_CS seen_VVN as_II part_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 overall_JJ enterprise_NN1 ._. 
Thatcherism_NN1 's_GE social_JJ engineering_NN1 just_RR as_RG much_DA1 social_JJ engineering_NN1 as_CSA that_DD1 of_IO the_AT Fabians_NP2 or_CC the_AT very_RG different_JJ local_JJ socialists_NN2 they_PPHS2 oppose_VV0 aims_NN2 to_TO '_" temper_VVI expectations_NN2 '_GE ._. 
The_AT post-war_JJ boom_NN1 's_GE revolution_NN1 of_IO rising_VVG expectations_NN2 is_VBZ said_VVN to_TO have_VHI fostered_VVN an_AT1 insatiable_JJ appetite_NN1 for_IF more_DAR ,_, without_IW concern_NN1 for_IF the_AT question_NN1 of_IO '_" who_PNQS pays_VVZ ?_? 
'_GE Thatcherism_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT revolt_NN1 of_IO the_AT haves_NN2 against_II the_AT demands_NN2 of_IO the_AT have_NN221 nots_NN222 ._. 
Mrs_NNB Thatcher_NP1 ,_, speaking_VVG on_II Panorama_NN1 (_( 25_MC January_NPM1 1988_MC )_) ,_, said_VVD that_CST her_APPGE constituency_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO those_DD2 who_PNQS are_VBR working_JJ '_GE for_IF an_AT1 increased_JJ standard_NN1 of_IO living_VVG for_IF their_APPGE own_DA families_NN2 '_GE (_( not_XX ,_, we_PPIS2 should_VM note_VVI ,_, for_IF others_NN2 )_) ._. 
She_PPHS1 receives_VVZ more_DAR complaints_NN2 ,_, she_PPHS1 said_VVD ,_, from_II those_DD2 who_PNQS are_VBR in_II work_NN1 but_CCB feel_VV0 they_PPHS2 would_VM be_VBI as_RG well_JJ21 off_JJ22 on_II supplementary_JJ benefit_NN1 ;_; her_APPGE aim_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO increase_VVI the_AT gap_NN1 between_II those_DD2 who_PNQS are_VBR working_VVG and_CC the_AT non-working_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 interesting_JJ aspect_NN1 of_IO any_DD '_GE counter-revolution_NN1 '_GE is_VBZ that_CST it_PPH1 takes_VVZ the_AT terms_NN2 of_IO the_AT '_GE revolution_NN1 '_GE and_CC turns_VVZ them_PPHO2 to_II its_APPGE own_DA purposes_NN2 ._. 
As_CSA Arno_NP1 Mayer_NP1 (_( 1971_MC ,_, p._NN1 45_MC )_) commented_VVD ,_, '_GE As_CS21 if_CS22 by_II reflex_NN1 ,_, the_AT counter-revolution_NN1 borrows_VVZ its_APPGE central_JJ ideas_NN2 ,_, objectives_NN2 ,_, styles_NN2 and_CC methods_NN2 from_II the_AT revolution_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Thus_RR ideas_NN2 and_CC principles_NN2 are_VBR taken_VVN over_RP ,_, redefined_VVD ,_, and_CC reapplied_VVN in_II order_NN1 to_II structure_NN1 and_CC manage_VV0 discontent_NN1 and_CC political_JJ rebellion_NN1 ._. 
Key_JJ words_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 self-help_NN1 ,_, accountability_NN1 ,_, responsibility_NN1 ,_, hard_RR work_VV0 ,_, thrift_NN1 many_DA2 central_JJ to_II the_AT tradition_NN1 of_IO the_AT English_NN1 working_VVG classes_NN2 and_CC trade_NN1 unions_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN appropriated_VVN and_CC presented_VVN as_RG specifically_RR Conservative_JJ and_CC in_II some_DD way_NN1 under_II threat_NN1 from_II socialism_NN1 and_CC collective_JJ action_NN1 ._. 
So_RR the_AT Thatcherite_JJ counter-revolution_NN1 has_VHZ redefined_VVN the_AT idea_NN1 of_IO justice_NN1 ._. 
John_NP1 Redwood_NP1 ,_, Head_NN1 of_IO the_AT Prime_JJ Minister_NN1 's_GE Policy_NN1 Unit_NN1 in_II 19835_MC ,_, now_RT a_AT1 Conservative_JJ MP_NN1 ,_, sees_VVZ two_MC different_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO justice_NN1 :_: protection_NN1 for_IF the_AT poor_JJ ;_; and_CC that_CST all_DB who_PNQS enjoy_VV0 services_NN2 should_VM pay_VVI (_( speaking_VVG on_II Weekend_NNT1 World_NN1 ,_, 11_MC October_NPM1 1987_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT poll_NN1 tax_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 said_VVD ,_, is_VBZ central_JJ to_TO change_VVI and_CC to_II improving_VVG the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 ._. 
Enterprise_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN driven_VVN away_RL by_II high_JJ business_NN1 rates_NN2 and_CC high_JJ domestic_JJ rates_NN2 ._. 
Enterprising_JJ people_NN ,_, in_II Thatcherism_NN1 's_GE view_NN1 ,_, are_VBR those_DD2 who_PNQS create_VV0 new_JJ jobs_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 are_VBR the_AT highly_RR successful_JJ ,_, who_PNQS must_VM be_VBI encouraged_VVN to_TO stay_VVI and_CC to_TO do_VDI well_RR for_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR the_AT motor_NN1 that_CST pulls_VVZ the_AT rest_NN1 up_RP ;_; they_PPHS2 create_VV0 prosperity_NN1 and_CC employ_VV0 other_JJ people_NN ._. 
Part_NN1 of_IO the_AT drive_NN1 to_TO improve_VVI inner_JJ cities_NN2 is_VBZ deliberately_RR to_TO reward_VVI success_NN1 ,_, increase_VV0 the_AT gap_NN1 between_II the_AT working_JJ and_CC the_AT non-working_NN1 ,_, retain_VV0 business_NN1 and_CC talented_JJ and_CC successful_JJ people_NN in_II these_DD2 areas_NN2 ,_, and_CC charge_VV0 those_DD2 who_PNQS use_VV0 services_NN2 the_AT economic_JJ cost_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 services_NN2 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 if_CS they_PPHS2 do_VD0 n't_XX like_VVI the_AT price_NN1 they_PPHS2 will_VM be_VBI encouraged_VVN to_TO move_VVI out_RP to_II areas_NN2 where_RRQ '_GE the_AT price_NN1 is_VBZ right_NN1 '_GE ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ called_JJ '_GE consumer_NN1 choice_NN1 '_GE and_CC it_PPH1 also_RR opens_VVZ up_RP the_AT possibility_NN1 of_IO charging_VVG for_IF more_DAR services_NN2 ._. 
The_AT effect_NN1 on_II the_AT demography_NN1 of_IO the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 could_VM be_VBI dramatic_JJ ,_, as_CSA migration_NN1 into_II and_CC out_II21 of_II22 inner_JJ cities_NN2 is_VBZ in_II any_DD case_NN1 already_RR high_JJ ._. 
Since_CS housing_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR crucial_JJ to_II mobility_NN1 ,_, the_AT break-up_NN1 of_IO local_JJ authority_NN1 control_NN1 of_IO low-income_JJ estates_NN2 is_VBZ also_RR part_NN1 of_IO the_AT package_NN1 of_IO reforms_NN2 ._. 
Reports_VVZ that_CST the_AT numbers_NN2 registering_VVG on_II the_AT electoral_JJ rolls_NN2 are_VBR falling_VVG (_( Weekend_NNT1 World_NN1 ,_, 11_MC October_NPM1 1987_MC ;_; the_AT Independent_NN1 ,_, 23_MC February_NPM1 1988_MC ,_, p._NN1 6_MC )_) indicate_VV0 that_CST the_AT political_JJ arithmetic_NN1 will_VM also_RR play_VVI its_APPGE part_NN1 ._. 
If_CS some_DD of_IO those_DD2 who_PNQS resist_VV0 and_CC resent_VV0 the_AT imposition_NN1 ,_, opt_VV0 out_II21 of_II22 the_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 (_( and_CC the_AT calculation_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST these_DD2 will_VM be_VBI those_DD2 who_PNQS are_VBR thought_VVN ,_, either_RR now_RT or_CC in_II the_AT future_NN1 ,_, likely_JJ to_TO benefit_VVI from_II the_AT present_JJ array_NN1 of_IO public_JJ services_NN2 )_) ,_, while_CS others_NN2 are_VBR more_RGR inclined_JJ to_TO vote_VVI at_II local_JJ elections_NN2 for_IF a_AT1 party_NN1 which_DDQ offers_VVZ to_TO cut_VVI and_CC reorganize_VVI services_NN2 ,_, the_AT electoral_JJ outcome_NN1 would_VM be_VBI dramatic_JJ ._. 
Michael_NP1 Howard_NP1 ,_, then_RT a_AT1 Minister_NN1 at_II the_AT Department_NN1 of_IO the_AT Environment_NN1 ,_, reported_VVD an_AT1 opinion_NN1 poll_NN1 as_CSA having_VHG found_VVN that_DD1 one-quarter_MF of_IO people_NN who_PNQS had_VHD not_XX previously_RR voted_VVN in_II local_JJ elections_NN2 intended_VVD to_TO vote_VVI in_II future_NN1 as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO the_AT community_NN1 charge_NN1 (_( interview_NN1 on_II This_DD1 Week_NNT1 ,_, Next_MD Week_NNT1 ,_, 21_MC February_NPM1 1988_MC )_) ._. 
Quite_RR how_RRQ they_PPHS2 will_VM choose_VVI to_TO vote_VVI is_VBZ less_RGR certain_JJ ,_, however_RR ,_, as_CSA the_AT poll_NN1 tax_NN1 becomes_VVZ labelled_JJ '_GE a_AT1 Tory_JJ tax_NN1 '_GE and_CC as_RG environmental_JJ issues_NN2 and_CC collapsing_JJ public_JJ services_NN2 assume_VV0 a_AT1 higher_JJR priority_NN1 ._. 
Another_DD1 concept_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN taken_VVN over_RP and_CC reinterpreted_VVN is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO '_GE decentralization_NN1 '_GE ._. 
One_MC1 argument_NN1 against_II the_AT Government_NN1 's_GE third_MD term_NN1 agenda_NN1 for_IF local_JJ government_NN1 and_CC the_AT public_JJ services_NN2 has_VHZ been_VBN that_DD1 ,_, by_II undermining_VVG local_JJ authorities_NN2 ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR increasingly_RR centralizing_VVG decision-taking_NN1 ._. 
On_II the_AT contrary_NN1 ,_, argue_VV0 the_AT Thatcherites_NN2 ,_, we_PPIS2 are_VBR '_GE putting_VVG power_NN1 further_RRR away_RL '_GE ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 to_II parents_NN2 through_II the_AT education_NN1 reforms_NN2 ._. 
With_IW the_AT opting-out_NN1 opportunity_NN1 ,_, schools_NN2 will_VM have_VHI greater_JJR responsibility_NN1 and_CC liberty_NN1 than_CSN under_II local_JJ authorities_NN2 ._. 
In_RR21 addition_RR22 ,_, capital_NN1 is_VBZ said_VVN to_TO have_VHI been_VBN spread_VVN among_II the_AT people_NN ._. 
FROM_II ENTITLEMENT_NN1 TO_II OBLIGATION_NN1 The_AT new_JJ enlightenment_NN1 's_GE assault_NN1 on_II social_JJ democracy_NN1 has_VHZ focused_VVN particularly_RR on_II the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO '_GE dependency_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Dependence_NN1 on_II bureaucracies_NN2 (_( local_JJ authorities_NN2 ,_, the_AT NHS_NP1 ,_, the_AT social_JJ security_NN1 system_NN1 )_) is_VBZ said_VVN to_TO present_VVI people_NN with_IW a_AT1 lack_NN1 of_IO control_NN1 over_II their_APPGE own_DA lives_NN2 ,_, to_TO damage_VVI the_AT spirit_NN1 of_IO independence_NN1 ._. 
The_AT sole_JJ supporters_NN2 or_CC the_AT '_GE social_JJ democratic_JJ '_GE welfare_NN1 state_NN1 are_VBR ,_, so_CS the_AT argument_NN1 goes_VVZ ,_, the_AT publicly_RR employed_VVN educated_JJ classes_NN2 ,_, whose_DDQGE careers_NN2 are_VBR linked_VVN to_II the_AT state_NN1 ._. 
Removing_VVG the_AT supports_NN2 of_IO these_DD2 state_VV0 agencies_NN2 the_AT welfare_NN1 net_NN1 ,_, subsidized_VVD public_JJ services_NN2 would_VM face_VVI people_NN with_IW a_AT1 '_GE reality_NN1 test_NN1 '_GE :_: that_DD1 if_CS you_PPY do_VD0 n't_XX sweep_VVI floors_NN2 eight_MC hours_NNT2 a_AT1 day_NNT1 ,_, you_PPY wo_VM n't_XX have_VHI any_DD money_NN1 to_TO live_VVI on_RP ._. 
Young_JJ people_NN are_VBR thought_VVN to_TO have_VHI imbibed_VVN this_DD1 dependency_NN1 culture_NN1 to_II an_AT1 extent_NN1 not_XX found_VVN in_II their_APPGE parents_NN2 and_CC grandparents_NN2 a_AT1 product_NN1 of_IO the_AT high_JJ rates_NN2 of_IO social_JJ expenditure_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1960s_MC2 and_CC 70s_MC2 ._. 
To_TO effect_VVI a_AT1 new_JJ social_JJ discipline_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 new_JJ relationship_NN1 is_VBZ being_VBG established_VVN between_II the_AT state_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE subjects_NN2 :_: society_NN1 ,_, that_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT government_NN1 ,_, plays_VVZ the_AT role_NN1 of_IO the_AT strict_JJ disciplinarian_NN1 father_NN1 ;_; the_AT people_NN ate_VVD their_APPGE children_NN2 who_PNQS have_VH0 to_TO be_VBI taught_VVN to_TO mend_VVI their_APPGE ways_NN2 ._. 
John_NP1 Moore_NP1 ,_, then_RT Social_JJ Services_NN2 Secretary_NN1 ,_, set_VV0 this_DD1 out_RP explicitly_RR in_II a_AT1 key_JJ speech_NN1 in_II autumn_NNT1 1987_MC ,_, when_CS he_PPHS1 argued_VVD the_AT need_NN1 to_TO move_VVI from_II social_JJ protection_NN1 towards_II attacking_VVG dependency_NN1 ._. 
In_II doing_VDG this_DD1 ,_, he_PPHS1 said_VVD ,_, '_" we_PPIS2 are_VBR following_VVG the_AT oldest_JJT pattern_NN1 of_IO behaviour_NN1 known_VVN to_II man_NN1 :_: the_AT way_NN1 parents_NN2 raise_VV0 their_APPGE children_NN2 ._. 
The_AT aim_NN1 of_IO all_DB parents_NN2 is_VBZ to_TO teach_VVI their_APPGE child_NN1 to_TO become_VVI an_AT1 independent_JJ ,_, self-reliant_JJ adult_NN1 ,_, able_JK to_TO participate_VVI in_II life_NN1 and_CC gain_VVI satisfaction_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 should_VM be_VBI society_NN1 's_GE aim_NN1 for_IF all_DB its_APPGE citizens_NN2 too_RR ._. 
'_GE A_AT1 clearer_JJR statement_NN1 of_IO the_AT top-down_JJ direction_NN1 of_IO the_AT people_NN by_II government_NN1 would_VM be_VBI hard_JJ to_TO find_VVI ._. 
It_PPH1 demonstrates_VVZ the_AT emphasis_NN1 on_II moral_JJ regulation_NN1 and_CC discipline_NN1 which_DDQ distinguishes_VVZ the_AT conservative_NN1 from_II the_AT liberal_JJ phases_NN2 of_IO Thatcherism_NN1 ._. 
The_AT American_JJ writer_NN1 Charles_NP1 Murray_NP1 ,_, one_MC1 of_IO Mr_NNB Moore_NP1 's_GE mentors_NN2 ,_, has_VHZ justified_VVN moves_NN2 away_II21 from_II22 the_AT language_NN1 of_IO entitlement_NN1 to_II the_AT language_NN1 of_IO obligation_NN1 by_II reference_NN1 to_II something_PN1 he_PPHS1 calls_NN2 '_GE popular_JJ wisdom_NN1 '_GE ._. 
This_DD1 he_PPHS1 defines_VVZ as_CSA characterized_VVN by_II '_GE hostility_NN1 towards_II welfare_NN1 (_( it_PPH1 makes_VVZ people_NN lazy_JJ )_) ,_, toward_II lenient_JJ judges_NN2 (_( they_PPHS2 encourage_VV0 crime_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC toward_II socially_RR conscious_JJ schools_NN2 ..._... 
The_AT popular_JJ wisdom_NN1 disapproves_VVZ of_IO favoritism_NN1 for_IF blacks_NN2 and_CC of_IO too_RG many_DA2 written-in_JJ rights_NN2 for_IF minorities_NN2 of_IO all_DB sorts_NN2 '_GE (_( Murray_NP1 ,_, 1984_MC ,_, p._NN1 146_MC )_) ._. 
John_NP1 Moore_NP1 continued_VVD his_58 '_GE assault_NN1 on_II dependency_NN1 '_GE in_II 1989_MC by_II arguing_VVG that_DD1 real_JJ poverty_NN1 has_VHZ already_RR been_VBN abolished_VVN in_II modern_JJ Britain_NP1 ._. 
Very_RG few_DA2 are_VBR really_RR poor_JJ any_DD more_DAR ._. 
To_TO make_VVI this_DD1 case_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 defined_VVD poverty_NN1 in_II '_GE the_AT old_JJ absolute_JJ sense_NN1 of_IO hunger_NN1 and_CC want_NN1 '_GE or_CC as_58 '_GE starving_JJ children_NN2 and_CC squalid_JJ slums_NN2 '_GE ._. 
By_II defining_VVG poverty_NN1 as_CSA starvation_NN1 and_CC destitution_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ able_JK to_TO claim_VVI that_CST not_XX many_DA2 people_NN in_II Britain_NP1 are_VBR poor_JJ and_CC that_CST those_DD2 who_PNQS argue_VV0 the_AT case_NN1 for_IF improvements_NN2 to_II welfare_NN1 provision_NN1 ,_, '_GE the_AT poverty_NN1 lobby_NN1 and_CC the_AT media_NN '_GE ,_, are_VBR really_RR intent_JJ on_II furthering_VVG their_APPGE socialist_JJ aims_NN2 through_II calling_VVG Western_JJ material_NN1 capitalism_NN1 a_AT1 failure_NN1 ._. 
Where_RRQ others_NN2 might_VM see_VVI a_AT1 more_RGR complex_JJ situation_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 conceptual_JJ continuum_NN1 between_II starvation_NN1 ,_, hunger_NN1 ,_, destitution_NN1 ,_, poverty_NN1 (_( want_VV0 )_) ,_, and_CC inequality_NN1 ,_, Moore_NP1 abolishes_VVZ poverty_NN1 by_II dividing_VVG it_PPH1 up_RP between_II the_AT two_MC extremes_NN2 of_IO the_AT continuum_NN1 ,_, also_RR at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 neatly_RR side-stepping_JJ discussion_NN1 of_IO the_AT visible_JJ increase_NN1 in_II begging_NN1 ,_, destitution_NN1 ,_, and_CC homelessness_NN1 in_II major_JJ British_JJ cities_NN2 ._. 
The_AT sub-text_NN1 ,_, or_CC hidden_JJ message_NN1 ,_, of_IO Moore_NP1 's_GE attack_NN1 on_II the_AT poverty_NN1 lobby_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 attack_NN1 on_II the_AT poor_JJ themselves_PPX2 ,_, part_NN1 of_IO the_AT move_NN1 to_II a_AT1 harsher_JJR ,_, conservative_JJ approach_NN1 to_II social_JJ policy_NN1 ._. 
The_AT poor_JJ are_VBR in_II reality_NN1 simply_RR experiencing_VVG the_AT effects_NN2 of_IO inequality_NN1 and_CC can_VM indeed_RR be_VBI blamed_VVN for_IF their_APPGE condition_NN1 ._. 
'_" It_PPH1 is_VBZ hard_JJ to_TO believe_VVI that_DD1 poverty_NN1 stalks_VVZ the_AT land_NN1 when_CS even_RR the_AT poorest_JJT fifth_MD of_IO families_NN2 with_IW children_NN2 spend_VV0 nearly_RR a_AT1 tenth_MD of_IO their_APPGE income_NN1 on_II alcohol_NN1 and_CC tobacco_NN1 '_GE ,_, was_VBDZ Mr_NNB Moore_NP1 's_GE dismissive_JJ conclusion_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA new_JJ social_JJ engineering_NN1 is_VBZ based_VVN on_II a_AT1 specific_JJ form_NN1 of_IO behaviourist_NN1 psychology_NN1 rewards_NN2 and_CC punishments_NN2 directed_VVN at_II individuals_NN2 teach_VV0 them_PPHO2 that_CST actions_NN2 have_VH0 consequences_NN2 ,_, that_CST failures_NN2 or_CC mistakes_NN2 are_VBR punished_VVN and_CC not_XX rewarded_VVN ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 behaviour_NN1 changes_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 stress_NN1 on_II merely_RR individual_JJ responsibility_NN1 ignores_VVZ the_AT reality_NN1 of_IO the_AT interrelatedness_NN1 of_IO human_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
No_AT consideration_NN1 is_VBZ given_VVN to_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST actually_RR society_NN1 is_VBZ everything_PN1 that_CST one_MC1 person_NN1 's_GE effort_NN1 may_VM bring_VVI reward_NN1 to_II someone_PN1 else_RR ;_; that_DD1 one_MC1 person_NN1 's_GE mistake_NN1 can_VM bring_VVI disaster_NN1 to_II another_DD1 ._. 
The_AT aim_NN1 of_IO the_AT Thatcherite_JJ reforms_NN2 to_II the_AT public_JJ services_NN2 is_VBZ said_VVN to_TO be_VBI to_TO give_VVI consumers_NN2 the_AT power_NN1 to_TO go_VVI elsewhere_RL if_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR not_XX satisfied_JJ ._. 
This_DD1 policy_NN1 is_VBZ limited_VVN ,_, however_RR ,_, in_II two_MC crucial_JJ ways_NN2 :_: first_MD ,_, that_DD1 such_DA '_GE choice_NN1 '_GE in_II effect_NN1 reduces_VVZ to_II the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO pay_VVI ,_, and_CC ability_NN1 to_TO pay_VVI has_VHZ been_VBN profoundly_RR affected_VVN by_II other_JJ policies_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 increased_VVN the_AT differences_NN2 among_II groups_NN2 with_II31 regard_II32 to_II33 income_NN1 and_CC wealth_NN1 ;_; and_CC secondly_RR ,_, that_CST many_DA2 public_JJ services_NN2 must_VM be_VBI provided_VVN in_II the_AT local_JJ area_NN1 if_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR to_TO be_VBI of_IO real_JJ value_NN1 and_CC if_CS other_JJ costs_NN2 ,_, not_XX only_RR financial_JJ ,_, are_VBR not_XX to_TO be_VBI incurred_VVN ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, in_II travelling_VVG or_CC moving_VVG residence_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO receive_VVI them_PPHO2 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, proposals_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 those_DD2 to_TO base_VVI service_NN1 provision_NN1 on_II charges_NN2 or_CC vouchers_NN2 are_VBR impractical_JJ and_CC tend_VV0 only_RR to_II increase_NN1 the_AT differences_NN2 between_II the_AT services_NN2 available_JJ in_II different_JJ areas_NN2 and_CC to_TO shift_VVI the_AT costs_NN2 from_II the_AT more_RGR visible_JJ budgets_NN2 of_IO the_AT services_NN2 to_II the_AT less_RGR visible_JJ ones_NN2 of_IO the_AT individual_NN1 ,_, relatively_RR powerless_JJ consumer_NN1 :_: either_RR their_APPGE pockets_NN2 or_CC their_APPGE time_NNT1 and_CC energy_NN1 will_VM be_VBI hit_VVN ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN ,_, the_AT language_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 welfare_NN1 revolution_NN1 is_VBZ American_JJ ,_, much_DA1 of_IO it_PPH1 popularized_VVD by_II writers_NN2 like_II Charles_NP1 Murray_NP1 (_( 1984_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT aim_NN1 to_TO move_VVI away_II21 from_II22 the_AT language_NN1 of_IO entitlement_NN1 to_II the_AT language_NN1 of_IO obligation_NN1 is_VBZ very_RG different_JJ from_II the_AT language_NN1 of_IO freedom_NN1 and_CC liberty_NN1 which_DDQ dominated_VVD the_AT earlier_JJR phases_NN2 of_IO Thatcherism_NN1 ._. 
As_II the_AT terms_NN2 accountability_NN1 and_CC democracy_NN1 were_VBDR redefined_VVN in_II the_AT poll_NN1 tax_NN1 debates_NN2 ,_, so_CS the_AT concepts_NN2 of_IO '_GE justice_NN1 '_GE and_CC '_GE active_JJ citizenship_NN1 '_GE have_VH0 been_VBN redefined_VVN in_II the_AT debates_NN2 about_II public_JJ services_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Thatcherite_JJ assault_NN1 on_II the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 involves_VVZ two_MC key_JJ aspects_NN2 :_: lowering_VVG expectations_NN2 and_CC imposing_JJ work_NN1 discipline_NN1 ._. 
The_AT object_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE training_NN1 schemes_NN2 '_GE being_VBG promoted_VVN as_II part_NN1 of_IO the_AT inner-city_JJ package_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO drive_VVI down_RP wages_NN2 ,_, for_IF without_IW reducing_VVG wages_NN2 there_EX will_VM be_VBI in_II job_NN1 creation_NN1 ._. 
The_AT creation_NN1 of_IO the_AT enterprise_NN1 culture_NN1 in_II deprived_JJ areas_NN2 of_IO the_AT North_ND1 and_CC the_AT '_GE inner_JJ cities_NN2 '_GE is_VBZ fundamentally_RR about_II the_AT creation_NN1 of_IO jobs_NN2 at_II lower_JJR wages_NN2 than_CSN were_VBDR previously_RR viewed_VVN as_CSA acceptable_JJ and_CC reducing_VVG entitlement_NN1 to_TO benefit_VVI and_CC levels_NN2 of_IO benefit_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO increase_VVI the_AT incentive_NN1 to_TO take_VVI on_RP these_DD2 jobs_NN2 ._. 
The_AT end_NN1 of_IO entitlement_NN1 is_VBZ perhaps_RR best_RRT demonstrated_VVN by_II the_AT introduction_NN1 of_IO the_AT Social_JJ Fund_NN1 in_II the_AT social_JJ security_NN1 reforms_NN2 of_IO 1988_MC ._. 
The_AT Social_JJ Fund_NN1 replaced_VVD the_AT previous_JJ system_NN1 of_IO additional_JJ and_CC urgent_JJ needs_VVZ allowances_NN2 and_CC grants_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ had_VHD been_VBN an_AT1 area_NN1 of_IO supplementary_JJ benefit_NN1 responsive_JJ to_TO demand_VVI and_CC welfare_NN1 rights_NN2 pressure_NN1 ._. 
The_AT solution_NN1 to_II the_AT complexities_NN2 of_IO the_AT system_NN1 and_CC the_AT growing_JJ complexity_NN1 of_IO case_NN1 law_NN1 adjudication_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO abolish_VVI the_AT notion_NN1 of_IO additional_JJ allowances_NN2 completely_RR ,_, replacing_VVG them_PPHO2 with_IW loans_NN2 from_II a_AT1 limited_JJ budget_NN1 and_CC no_AT right_NN1 to_II independent_JJ appeal_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 signified_VVD a_AT1 '_GE campaign_NN1 against_II the_AT benefit_NN1 culture_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Benefits_NN2 would_VM go_VVI only_RR to_II those_DD2 in_II '_GE genuine_JJ need_NN1 '_GE so_RR as_CSA not_XX to_TO '_GE featherbed_NN1 '_GE the_AT rest_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 distinction_NN1 would_VM be_VBI made_VVN between_II the_AT deserving_JJ and_CC the_AT undeserving_JJ poor_JJ ._. 
The_AT main_JJ aim_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 reforms_NN2 was_VBDZ not_XX to_TO meet_VVI need_NN1 precisely_RR and_CC in_II a_AT1 neat_JJ ,_, targeted_VVD form_NN1 ._. 
Rather_RR it_PPH1 was_VBDZ precisely_RR to_TO change_VVI attitudes_NN2 ,_, to_TO stress_VVI individual_JJ responsibility_NN1 you_PPY 're_VBR on_II your_APPGE own_DA ,_, do_VD0 n't_XX expect_VVI any_DD help_NN1 from_II us_PPIO2 and_CC to_TO reduce_VVI the_AT state_NN1 's_GE obligations_NN2 ._. 
THE_AT BATTLE_NN1 OF_IO IDEAS_NN2 '_GE The_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 is_VBZ at_RR21 once_RR22 Britain_NP1 's_GE proudest_JJT achievement_NN1 and_CC the_AT biggest_JJT man-made_JJ disaster_NN1 '_GE ,_, Sir_NNB John_NP1 Hoskyns_NP1 has_VHZ written_VVN ._. 
(_( He_PPHS1 is_VBZ another_DD1 former_DA Head_NN1 of_IO the_AT Prime_JJ Minister_NN1 's_GE policy_NN1 Unit_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 key_JJ figure_NN1 in_II the_AT Institute_NN1 of_IO Directors_NN2 ._. )_) 
In_II a_AT1 series_NN of_IO articles_NN2 in_II The_AT Times_NNT2 to_TO celebrate_VVI Mrs_NNB Thatcher_NP1 's_GE ten_MC years_NNT2 as_II leader_NN1 (_( 11_MC ,_, 12_MC ,_, and_CC 13_MC February_NPM1 1985_MC )_) he_PPHS1 wrote_VVD that_CST she_PPHS1 had_VHD inherited_VVN '_GE forty_MC years_NNT2 of_IO muddled_JJ policy_NN1 '_GE ._. 
The_AT first_MD stage_NN1 of_IO the_AT attack_NN1 on_II the_AT '_GE muddled_JJ policy_NN1 '_GE involved_VVD reducing_VVG the_AT power_NN1 of_IO the_AT trade_NN1 unions_NN2 ,_, especially_RR the_AT public_JJ sector_NN1 unions_NN2 ,_, who_PNQS were_VBDR thought_VVN to_TO dominate_VVI the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
Having_VHG cowed_VVN the_AT trade_NN1 unions_NN2 ,_, we_PPIS2 can_VM see_VVI that_CST the_AT next_MD step_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO take_VVI on_RP the_AT local_JJ authorities_NN2 and_CC the_AT poor_JJ ._. 
Next_MD in_II line_NN1 for_IF the_AT 1990s_MC2 are_VBR child_NN1 benefit_NN1 ,_, pensions_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT NHS_NP1 ._. 
By_II the_AT year_NNT1 2000_MC ,_, little_RR will_VM remain_VVI of_IO the_AT 1940s_MC2 social_JJ legislation_NN1 ,_, assumed_VVN by_II Beveridge_NP1 ._. 
Beveridge_NP1 's_GE Report_NN1 was_VBDZ based_VVN on_II three_MC guiding_JJ principles_NN2 :_: the_AT second_MD of_IO these_DD2 was_VBDZ that_CST :_: the_AT organization_NN1 of_IO social_JJ insurance_NN1 should_VM be_VBI treated_VVN as_CSA one_MC1 part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 comprehensive_JJ policy_NN1 of_IO social_JJ progress_NN1 ._. 
Social_JJ insurance_NN1 fully_RR developed_VVN may_VM provide_VVI income_NN1 security_NN1 :_: it_PPH1 is_VBZ an_AT1 attack_NN1 upon_II Want_VV0 ._. 
But_CCB Want_VV0 is_VBZ one_MC1 only_JJ of_IO five_MC giants_NN2 on_II the_AT road_NN1 of_IO reconstruction_NN1 and_CC in_II some_DD ways_NN2 the_AT easiest_JJT to_TO attack_VVI ._. 
The_AT others_NN2 are_VBR Disease_NN1 ,_, Ignorance_NN1 ,_, Squalor_NN1 and_CC Idleness_NN1 '_GE ._. 
(_( Beveridge_NN1 ,_, 1942_MC ,_, para_NN1 ._. 
8_MC ,_, my_APPGE emphasis_NN1 )_) Thus_RR Beveridge_NP1 had_VHD assumed_VVN that_CST the_AT elimination_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 was_VBDZ integrally_RR linked_VVN to_II policies_NN2 for_IF health_NN1 ,_, education_NN1 ,_, housing_VVG and_CC town_NN1 planning_NN1 ,_, and_CC full_JJ employment_NN1 ._. 
Under_II Thatcherism_NN1 ,_, full_JJ employment_NN1 commitments_NN2 ,_, family_NN1 allowances_NN2 ,_, the_AT NHS_NP1 ,_, town_NN1 planning_NN1 ,_, council_NN1 housing_NN1 ,_, education_NN1 ,_, social_JJ security_NN1 ,_, all_DB will_VM have_VHI been_VBN radically_RR reformed_VVN ._. 
The_AT battle_NN1 of_IO politics_NN1 and_CC ideas_NN2 which_DDQ focuses_VVZ on_II the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 represents_VVZ a_AT1 conflict_NN1 between_II sets_NN2 of_IO interests_NN2 and_CC values_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 a_AT1 long_JJ history_NN1 ,_, dating_VVG at_RR21 least_RR22 from_II the_AT 1830s_MC2 and_CC the_AT New_JJ Poor_JJ Law_NN1 of_IO 1834_MC ._. 
These_DD2 are_VBR conflicts_NN2 between_II democratic_JJ and_CC anti-democratic_JJ ,_, socialist_JJ and_CC anti-socialist_NN1 ,_, egalitarian_JJ and_CC anti-egalitarian_JJ ideas_NN2 ._. 
The_AT ideas_NN2 of_IO the_AT radical_JJ Right_NN1 are_VBR not_XX new_JJ ._. 
They_PPHS2 go_VV0 back_RP a_AT1 long_JJ way_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR old_JJ ideas_NN2 stated_VVN in_II new_JJ form_NN1 ,_, in_II new_JJ language_NN1 ._. 
In_II all_DB the_AT post-war_JJ years_NNT2 ,_, both_DB2 currents_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN present_JJ ._. 
What_DDQ changed_VVD was_VBDZ the_AT party_NN1 political_JJ situation_NN1 :_: the_AT seizure_NN1 of_IO power_NN1 by_II the_AT radical_JJ Right_NN1 in_II the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 and_CC thence_RR in_II government_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, Ian_NP1 Macleod_NP1 and_CC Enoch_NP1 Powell_NP1 (_( 1952_MC )_) had_VHD argued_VVN :_: Given_CS21 that_CS22 redistribution_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 characteristic_NN1 of_IO the_AT social_JJ services_NN2 ,_, the_AT general_JJ presumption_NN1 must_VM be_VBI that_CST they_PPHS2 will_VM be_VBI rendered_VVN only_RR on_II evidence_NN1 of_IO need_NN1 ,_, i.e._REX of_IO financial_JJ inability_NN1 to_TO provide_VVI each_DD1 particular_JJ service_NN1 out_II21 of_II22 one_PN1 's_GE own_DA or_CC one_PN1 's_GE family_NN1 's_GE resources_NN2 ._. 
Otherwise_RR the_AT process_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 wasteful_JJ and_CC purposeless_JJ collection_NN1 and_CC issue_NN1 of_IO resources_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ leaves_VVZ people_NN in_II the_AT enjoyment_NN1 of_IO the_AT same_DA facilities_NN2 as_CSA before_RT ._. 
And_CC Geoffrey_NP1 Howe_NP1 (_( 1961_MC )_) argued_VVD that_DD1 '_VBZ over_II the_AT whole_JJ field_NN1 of_IO social_JJ policy_NN1 ,_, the_AT firm_JJ aim_NN1 should_VM be_VBI a_AT1 reduction_NN1 in_II the_AT role_NN1 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 '_GE ._. 
These_DD2 ideas_NN2 were_VBDR given_VVN a_AT1 great_JJ push_NN1 forward_RL by_II the_AT increasing_JJ impact_NN1 of_IO American_JJ thinking_NN1 on_II British_JJ social_JJ policy_NN1 from_II the_AT late_JJ 1960s_MC2 onward_RL ._. 
The_AT collapse_NN1 of_IO thinking_VVG about_II social_JJ policy_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 result_NN1 largely_RR of_IO the_AT failure_NN1 of_IO the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 to_TO develop_VVI new_JJ policies_NN2 and_CC not_XX to_TO defend_VVI adequately_RR basic_JJ principles_NN2 and_CC institutions_NN2 ,_, created_VVD a_AT1 vacuum_NN1 into_II which_DDQ right-wing_JJ ideas_NN2 flooded_VVD ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ easier_JJR for_IF the_AT Thatcherites_NN2 to_TO attack_VVI the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 successfully_RR because_CS its_APPGE principles_NN2 and_CC institutions_NN2 had_VHD not_XX been_VBN adequately_RR defended_VVN ,_, as_CSA Dorothy_NP1 Wedderburn_NP1 and_CC others_NN2 were_VBDR warning_VVG as_RG early_RR as_CSA 1964_MC (_( Wedderburn_NP1 ,_, 1965_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT slippage_NN1 of_IO support_NN1 for_IF universalism_NN1 ,_, equality_NN1 ,_, and_CC public_JJ services_NN2 was_VBDZ illustrated_VVN in_II comments_NN2 made_VVN by_II Roy_NP1 Jenkins_NP1 ._. 
Writing_VVG in_II 1959_MC and_CC with_II31 reference_II32 to_II33 Peter_NP1 Townsend_NP1 's_GE calculation_NN1 that_CST a_AT1 fifth_MD of_IO the_AT population_NN1 had_VHD not_XX shared_VVN in_II the_AT general_JJ improvement_NN1 in_II living_NN1 standards_NN2 since_CS the_AT war_NN1 ,_, Roy_NP1 Jenkins_NP1 argued_VVD :_: Any_DD believer_NN1 in_II social_JJ justice_NN1 ,_, or_CC indeed_RR any_DD believer_NN1 in_II a_AT1 civilised_JJ society_NN1 ,_, must_VM surely_RR give_VVI a_AT1 high_JJ priority_NN1 to_II providing_VVG such_DA an_AT1 improvement_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD ,_, including_II Mr_NNB Townsend_NP1 himself_PPX1 ,_, would_VM give_VVI it_PPH1 an_AT1 absolute_JJ priority_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 would_VM deny_VVI the_AT right_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 whose_DDQGE standard_NN1 of_IO living_NN1 is_VBZ already_RR at_II or_CC above_II the_AT average_NN1 to_II any_DD further_JJR improvement_NN1 until_CS the_AT submerged_JJ fifth_MD had_VHD been_VBN given_VVN more_RGR or_CC less_RGR equivalent_JJ benefits_NN2 ._. 
I_PPIS1 would_VM not_XX accept_VVI this_DD1 extreme_JJ position_NN1 ._. 
Neither_RR the_AT economic_JJ policy_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 nation_NN1 nor_CC the_AT political_JJ programme_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 party_NN1 is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO achieve_VVI a_AT1 successful_JJ dynamism_NN1 if_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ based_VVN solely_RR upon_II the_AT assistance_NN1 of_IO lame_JJ ducks_NN2 ._. 
(_( Jenkins_NP1 ,_, 1959_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 567_MC ,_, my_APPGE emphasis_NN1 )_) Thus_RR even_RR in_II 1959_MC advocacy_NN1 of_IO equality_NN1 was_VBDZ cast_VVN as_II extremism._NNU the_AT need_NN1 for_IF incentives_NN2 was_VBDZ accepted_VVN if_CS economic_JJ growth_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI attained_VVN ._. 
And_CC any_DD chance_NN1 of_IO winning_VVG an_AT1 election_NN1 on_II proposals_NN2 for_IF social_JJ justice_NN1 was_58 '_GE realistically_RR '_GE denied_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ to_TO stress_VVI that_CST while_CS there_EX is_VBZ within_II right-wing_JJ attacks_NN2 on_II the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 a_AT1 concentration_NN1 on_II shifting_JJ culture_NN1 and_CC attitudes_NN2 ,_, with_IW the_AT increasing_JJ emphasis_NN1 on_II '_GE business_NN1 '_GE and_CC '_GE enterprise_NN1 '_GE ,_, on_II managing_VVG tight_JJ budgets_NN2 and_CC devolving_VVG responsibility_NN1 for_IF effecting_VVG cuts_NN2 to_TO lower_VVI levels_NN2 ,_, the_AT intentions_NN2 are_VBR determinedly_RR economic_JJ ._. 
Ideology_NN1 provides_VVZ the_AT justification_NN1 and_CC politics_NN1 the_AT means_NN for_IF shifts_NN2 in_II economic_JJ outcomes_NN2 redistribution_NN1 of_IO income_NN1 and_CC wealth_NN1 away_II21 from_II22 some_DD sectors_NN2 and_CC groups_NN2 towards_II others_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 shift_NN1 requires_VVZ crucially_RR a_AT1 lowering_NN1 of_IO labour-costs_NN2 and_CC restructuring_NN1 of_IO the_AT labour_NN1 market_NN1 ._. 
Social_JJ discipline_NN1 is_VBZ wanted_VVN not_XX just_RR for_IF itself_PPX1 but_CCB for_IF these_DD2 ends_NN2 ._. 
Much_DA1 of_IO what_DDQ happened_VVD with_IW the_AT ascendency_NN1 of_IO the_AT radical_JJ Right_NN1 in_II British_JJ politics_NN1 was_VBDZ predicted_VVN in_II at_RR21 least_RR22 one_MC1 prescient_JJ article_NN1 (_( Leonard_NP1 ,_, 1979_MC )_) ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ interesting_JJ ,_, however_RR ,_, is_VBZ that_CST it_PPH1 has_VHZ taken_VVN over_RG ten_MC years_NNT2 to_TO bring_VVI about_RP the_AT changes_NN2 Leonard_NP1 anticipated_VVD ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ important_JJ and_CC tells_VVZ us_PPIO2 two_MC things_NN2 ._. 
First_MD ,_, that_CST the_AT radical_JJ Right_NN1 's_GE assault_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN carefully_RR managed_VVN ;_; the_AT step_NN1 by_II step_NN1 approach_NN1 was_VBDZ brilliantly_RR conceived_VVN and_CC managed_VVN by_II diligent_JJ and_CC unerring_JJ control_NN1 from_II the_AT centre_NN1 ;_; secondly_RR ,_, that_CST the_AT speed_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE success_NN1 has_VHZ varied_VVN in_II different_JJ areas_NN2 of_IO public_JJ provision_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ tells_VVZ us_PPIO2 much_RR about_II the_AT role_NN1 of_IO resistances_NN2 ,_, resistances_NN2 built_VVN on_II organized_JJ opposition_NN1 within_II the_AT public_JJ services_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT areas_NN2 most_RGT closely_RR concerned_JJ with_IW the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 ,_, opposition_NN1 from_II local_JJ authorities_NN2 has_VHZ been_VBN crucial_JJ ._. 
RECENT_JJ POLICIES_NN2 ON_II THE_AT INNER_JJ CITIES_NN2 Conservative_JJ policy_NN1 on_II the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 has_VHZ diverged_VVN in_II some_DD ways_NN2 from_II the_AT earlier_JJR policies_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1970s_MC2 ,_, especially_RR in_II shifting_VVG away_II21 from_II22 social_JJ and_CC environmental_JJ programmes_NN2 towards_II an_AT1 emphasis_NN1 on_II economic_JJ and_CC enterprise-generating_JJ ones_NN2 ._. 
In_II other_JJ ways_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 continuity_NN1 in_II these_DD2 policies_NN2 ,_, especially_RR in_CS41 so_CS42 far_CS43 as_CS44 inner-city_JJ and_CC urban_JJ initiatives_NN2 specifically_RR target_NN1 defined_VVD spatial_JJ areas_NN2 and_CC direct_JJ resources_NN2 deliberately_RR towards_II them_PPHO2 through_II special_JJ schemes_NN2 ._. 
The_AT assumptions_NN2 lying_VVG behind_II such_DA targeted_VVD programmes_NN2 are_VBR that_CST the_AT '_GE problem_NN1 '_GE is_VBZ a_AT1 bounded_JJ one_PN1 ,_, concerned_JJ with_IW '_GE pockets_NN2 of_IO poverty_NN1 or_CC deprivation_NN1 '_GE ,_, restricted_JJ areas_NN2 of_IO decay_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ can_VM be_VBI remedied_VVN through_II relatively_RR limited_JJ expenditure_NN1 and_CC precise_JJ targeting_NN1 of_IO funds_NN2 and_CC activities_NN2 to_II '_GE special_JJ '_GE ,_, different_JJ ,_, difficult_JJ problems_NN2 ,_, limited_JJ problems_NN2 which_DDQ remain_VV0 to_TO be_VBI rooted_VVN out_RP ,_, while_CS the_AT rest_NN1 of_IO the_AT system_NN1 is_VBZ assumed_VVN to_TO be_VBI functioning_VVG well_RR and_CC on_II course_NN1 for_IF prosperity_NN1 and_CC harmony_NN1 ._. 
That_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, inner_JJ cities_NN2 are_VBR perceived_VVN as_58 '_GE deviant_JJ communities_NN2 '_GE ,_, areas_NN2 which_DDQ need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI turned_VVN around_RP and_CC brought_VVN back_RP into_II the_AT mainstream_JJ ,_, a_AT1 mainstream_JJ that_CST requires_VVZ little_DA1 or_CC no_AT restructuring_NN1 or_CC reform_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 shift_NN1 in_II policy_NN1 from_II universalism_NN1 towards_II selectivism_NN1 and_CC area_NN1 targeting_VVG was_VBDZ criticized_VVN as_CSA early_RR is_VBZ 1976_MC by_II Peter_NP1 Townsend_NP1 ,_, who_PNQS was_VBDZ quick_JJ to_TO note_VVI its_APPGE implications_NN2 :_: The_AT perception_NN1 that_CST the_AT ills_NN2 of_IO society_NN1 are_VBR relatively_RR more_RGR prevalent_JJ in_II some_DD areas_NN2 than_CSN others_NN2 has_VHZ innocent_JJ and_CC fairly_RR obvious_JJ origins_NN2 ..._... 
But_CCB then_RT material_NN1 and_CC environmental_JJ deficiencies_NN2 become_VV0 heavily_RR associated_VVN in_II the_AT public_JJ mind_NN1 with_IW other_JJ socially_RR perceived_VVN problems_NN2 ._. 
For_IF social_JJ reasons_NN2 ,_, both_DB2 the_AT degree_NN1 of_IO concentration_NN1 of_IO certain_JJ acknowledged_JJ problems_NN2 and_CC the_AT extent_NN1 to_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 can_VM be_VBI explained_VVN by_II internal_JJ processes_NN2 of_IO self-generation_NN1 rather_RG externally_RR imposed_VVN processes_NN2 may_VM be_VBI grossly_RR exaggerated_VVN ._. 
(_( Townsend_NP1 ,_, 1976_MC ,_, p._NN1 168_MC )_) He_PPHS1 foresaw_VVD the_AT dangerous_JJ drift_NN1 in_II urban_JJ policy_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ began_VVD under_II a_AT1 Labour_JJ government_NN1 ,_, towards_II beliefs_NN2 in_II contamination_NN1 ,_, self-generation_NN1 of_IO problems_NN2 ,_, individualistic_JJ explanations_NN2 for_IF poverty_NN1 ,_, pathologizing_VVG of_IO areas_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE populations_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 perceptions_NN2 were_VBDR encouraged_VVN by_II policies_NN2 which_DDQ assumed_VVD that_CST problems_NN2 of_IO urban_JJ deprivation_NN1 had_VHD their_APPGE origins_NN2 in_II the_AT characteristics_NN2 of_IO local_JJ populations_NN2 and_CC that_CST these_DD2 could_VM be_VBI resolved_VVN simply_RR by_II better_JJR co-ordination_NN1 of_IO the_AT social_JJ services_NN2 and_CC encouragement_NN1 of_IO citizen_NN1 involvement_NN1 and_CC community_NN1 self-help_NN1 ._. 
THE_AT '_GE URBAN_JJ UNDERCLASS_NN1 '_GE A_ZZ1 key_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 situation_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT extent_NN1 to_II which_DDQ public_JJ policy_NN1 itself_PPX1 acts_VVZ to_TO create_VVI an_AT1 '_GE underclass_NN1 '_GE of_IO excluded_JJ poor_JJ ,_, who_PNQS are_VBR compressed_VVN into_II densely_RR populated_VVN ,_, poorly_RR served_VVN physical_JJ spaces_NN2 ,_, crowded_JJ estates_NN2 ,_, and_CC '_GE inner_JJ cities_NN2 '_GE ._. 
This_DD1 also_RR implies_VVZ ,_, as_CSA recognized_VVN by_II the_AT community_NN1 development_NN1 activists_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1970s_MC2 and_CC their_APPGE inheritors_NN2 the_AT '_GE local_JJ socialists_58 '_GE ,_, that_DD1 poverty_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 political_JJ condition_NN1 as_CSA much_RR if_CS not_XX more_DAR than_CSN a_AT1 social_JJ or_CC economic_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
The_AT powerlessness_NN1 of_IO the_AT poor_JJ ,_, their_APPGE inability_NN1 to_TO influence_VVI the_AT distribution_NN1 of_IO life-chances_NN2 and_CC rewards_NN2 ,_, helps_VVZ to_TO explain_VVI their_APPGE poverty_NN1 (_( Miliband_NP1 ,_, 1974_MC ;_; MacGregor_NP1 ,_, 1981_MC )_) ._. 
Some_DD political_JJ activists_NN2 concluded_VVN from_II this_DD1 that_CST what_DDQ was_VBDZ needed_VVN was_VBDZ to_TO '_" empower_VVI the_AT poor_JJ '_GE ,_, encourage_VV0 their_APPGE civic_JJ and_CC political_JJ participation_NN1 as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 to_TO redress_VVI the_AT balance_NN1 ,_, give_VV0 them_PPHO2 the_AT strength_NN1 to_TO organize_VVI in_II such_DA a_AT1 way_NN1 as_CSA to_TO make_VVI effective_JJ claims_NN2 on_II society_NN1 ,_, to_TO receive_VVI those_DD2 citizen_NN1 's_GE rights_NN2 to_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 were_VBDR said_VVN to_TO be_VBI entitled_VVN ._. 
Much_DA1 welfare_NN1 rights_NN2 activity_NN1 and_CC anti-poverty_JJ campaigns_NN2 of_IO local_JJ authorities_NN2 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 anti-racist_JJ ,_, anti-sexist_JJ equal_JJ opportunities_NN2 policies_NN2 ,_, were_VBDR based_VVN on_II this_DD1 analysis_NN1 ._. 
Once_RR21 again_RR22 ,_, the_AT counter-revolution_NN1 has_VHZ taken_VVN over_II the_AT key_JJ concepts_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 approach_NN1 and_CC turned_VVD them_PPHO2 on_II their_APPGE head_NN1 ._. 
The_AT '_GE enabling_JJ state_NN1 '_GE and_CC the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO empowering_JJ people_NN have_VH0 been_VBN interpreted_VVN as_CSA encouraging_VVG more_RGR individual_JJ consumer_NN1 choice_NN1 and_CC limited_JJ ,_, voluntary_JJ self-help_JJ welfare_NN1 activity_NN1 and_CC '_GE community_NN1 care_NN1 '_GE (_( Thatcher_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC ;_; Ridley_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT perceptions_NN2 of_IO the_AT '_GE inner_JJ city_NN1 '_GE and_CC of_IO the_AT '_GE underclass_NN1 '_GE which_DDQ inform_VV0 government_NN1 circles_NN2 today_RT are_VBR drawn_VVN from_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, whose_DDQGE cities_NN2 offer_VV0 a_AT1 terrifying_JJ picture_NN1 of_IO our_APPGE future_NN1 if_CS we_PPIS2 continue_VV0 to_TO move_VVI down_II the_AT road_NN1 to_II a_AT1 residual_JJ ,_, extremely_RR selectivist_NN1 welfare_NN1 system_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 perceptions_NN2 emphasize_VV0 the_AT pathology_NN1 of_IO the_AT victims_NN2 themselves_PPX2 and_CC the_AT pathological_JJ influences_NN2 found_VVN in_II certain_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
Fear_VV0 about_II a_AT1 drugs_NN2 epidemic_NN1 fuelled_VVD this_DD1 alarm_NN1 (_( MacGregor_NP1 ,_, 1989_MC )_) ._. 
'_" We_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN the_AT future_NN1 and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ frightening_JJ '_GE ,_, said_VVD Robin_NP1 Corbett_NP1 MP_NNA returning_VVG from_II a_AT1 visit_NN1 to_II New_NP1 York_NP1 's_VBZ Lower_RRR East_ND1 Side_NN1 with_IW the_AT Home_NN1 Affairs_NN2 Select_VV0 Committee_NN1 in_II 1985_MC ._. 
The_AT picture_NN1 was_VBDZ sketched_VVN by_II John_NP1 Banham_NP1 (_( 1988_MC ,_, p._NN1 23_MC )_) ,_, Director-General_NN1 of_IO the_AT CBI_NP1 ,_, describing_VVG Lawndale_NP1 on_II the_AT south_ND1 side_NN1 of_IO Chicago_NP1 ._. 
This_DD1 ,_, he_PPHS1 said_VVD ,_, represents_VVZ a_AT1 future_JJ to_TO be_VBI avoided_VVN at_II almost_RR any_DD cost_NN1 ._. 
There_RL ,_, a_AT1 combination_NN1 of_IO poor_JJ housing_NN1 and_CC education_NN1 ,_, high_JJ crime_NN1 rates_NN2 ,_, much_DA1 of_IO it_PPH1 drug-related_JJ ,_, large-scale_JJ immigration_NN1 and_CC associated_JJ racial_JJ tensions_NN2 ,_, an_AT1 exodus_NN1 of_IO jobs_NN2 and_CC the_AT more_RGR well-off_JJ to_II the_AT suburbs_NN2 ,_, high_JJ youth_NN1 unemployment_NN1 and_CC welfare_NN1 dependency_NN1 and_CC the_AT break-up_NN1 of_IO traditional_JJ family_NN1 structures_NN2 have_VH0 served_VVN to_TO create_VVI what_DDQ some_DD commentators_NN2 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 have_VH0 described_VVN as_II an_AT1 '_GE urban_JJ underclass_NN1 '_GE ._. 
John_NP1 Banham_NP1 's_GE understanding_NN1 of_IO the_AT term_NN1 '_GE underclass_NN1 '_GE derives_VVZ from_II his_APPGE days_NNT2 as_II a_AT1 Director-General_NN1 at_II the_AT Audit_NN1 Commission_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 reiterates_VVZ an_AT1 orthodoxy_NN1 whose_DDQGE source_NN1 can_VM be_VBI traced_VVN to_II one_MC1 specific_JJ article_NN1 (_( Lemann_NP1 ,_, 1986_MC )_) ._. 
This_DD1 perception_NN1 found_VVD expression_NN1 also_RR in_II an_AT1 important_JJ Audit_NN1 Commission_NN1 Occasional_JJ Paper_NN1 (_( Audit_NN1 Commission_NN1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) from_II which_DDQ Banham_NP1 's_GE statement_NN1 quotes_NN2 and_CC which_DDQ is_VBZ itself_PPX1 a_AT1 direct_JJ repetition_NN1 of_IO Lemann_NP1 's_GE views_NN2 ._. 
The_AT paper_NN1 set_VVN out_RP in_II diagrammatic_JJ form_NN1 a_AT1 view_NN1 of_IO the_AT factors_NN2 causing_VVG an_AT1 urban_JJ underclass_NN1 (_( see_VV0 Figure_NN1 4._MC 1_MC1 )_) ._. 
At_II the_AT centre_NN1 of_IO the_AT conception_NN1 is_VBZ high_JJ youth_NN1 unemployment_NN1 which_DDQ ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ assumed_VVN ,_, in_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO males_NN2 leads_VVZ to_II crime_NN1 and_CC trouble_NN1 with_IW the_AT police_NN2 ;_; in_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO females_NN2 it_PPH1 leads_VVZ to_II single-parent_JJ families_NN2 ._. 
Single-parent_JJ families_NN2 ,_, that_DD1 is_VBZ mothers_NN2 ,_, are_VBR blamed_VVN for_IF continuing_VVG this_DD1 process_NN1 ,_, producing_VVG a_AT1 culture_NN1 of_IO dependency_NN1 and_CC poverty_NN1 in_II that_DD1 their_APPGE children_NN2 are_VBR said_VVN to_TO grow_VVI up_RP with_IW poor_JJ interpersonal_JJ skills_NN2 ,_, low_JJ educational_JJ achievement_NN1 ,_, and_CC lack_NN1 of_IO marketable_JJ skills_NN2 ._. 
Recent_JJ US_NP1 research_NN1 and_CC policy_NN1 have_VH0 focused_VVN on_II '_GE dependent_JJ mothers_NN2 '_GE ._. 
Welfare_NN1 is_VBZ seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 drug_NN1 of_IO addiction_NN1 but_CCB studies_NN2 of_IO long-term_JJ welfare_NN1 recipients_NN2 have_VH0 found_VVN that_CST only_RR one_MC1 in_II five_MC daughters_NN2 of_IO dependent_JJ mothers_NN2 themselves_PPX2 become_VV0 dependent_JJ ._. 
Furthermore_RR ,_, half_DB of_IO all_DB mothers_NN2 on_II welfare_NN1 come_VVN off_II it_PPH1 within_II two_MC years_NNT2 (_( Daly_NP1 ,_, 1989_MC )_) ._. 
However_RR ,_, superficial_JJ reading_NN1 of_IO research_NN1 findings_NN2 ,_, combined_VVN with_IW prejudice_NN1 ,_, has_VHZ led_VVN to_II a_AT1 growing_JJ stress_NN1 on_II workfare_NN1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 where_RRQ mothers_NN2 ,_, whose_DDQGE children_NN2 may_VM be_VBI as_RG young_JJ as_CSA six_MC months_NNT2 in_II some_DD States_NN2 ,_, could_VM be_VBI forced_VVN to_TO accept_VVI training_NN1 or_CC low-paid_JJ work_NN1 even_RR where_CS the_AT child_NN1 care_NN1 support_NN1 services_NN2 are_VBR inadequate_JJ ._. 
The_AT harshly_RR punitive_JJ impact_NN1 of_IO the_AT new_JJ social_JJ conservatism_NN1 on_II these_DD2 women_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE children_NN2 contrasts_VVZ with_IW right-wing_JJ rhetoric_NN1 expressing_VVG concern_NN1 for_IF the_AT family_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 views_NN2 are_VBR being_VBG borrowed_VVN by_II right-wingers_NN2 in_II Britain_NP1 (_( Redwood_NP1 ,_, 1989_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT social_JJ historian_NN1 John_NP1 Macnicol_NP1 (_( 1988_MC )_) has_VHZ criticized_VVN the_AT '_GE pursuit_NN1 of_IO the_AT underclass_NN1 '_GE which_DDQ characterized_VVD the_AT 1970s_MC2 and_CC 1980s_MC2 ._. 
He_PPHS1 pinpoints_VVZ the_AT beginnings_NN2 of_IO the_AT contemporary_JJ resurgence_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 theme_NN1 as_CSA Sir_NNB Keith_NP1 Joseph_NP1 's_GE speech_NN1 to_II the_AT pre-School_JJ Playgroups_NN2 Association_NN1 on_II 29_MC June_NPM1 1972_MC ,_, when_CS he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ Secretary_NN1 of_IO State_NN1 for_IF Social_JJ Services_NN2 ._. 
Macnicol_NP1 shows_VVZ that_CST the_AT roots_NN2 of_IO these_DD2 views_NN2 lie_VV0 deeper_RRR and_CC can_VM be_VBI found_VVN in_II the_AT social_JJ debates_NN2 of_IO the_AT past_JJ one_PN1 hundred_NNO years_NNT2 ._. 
Investigations_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 hereditary_JJ or_CC hard-core_JJ social_JJ problem_NN1 group_NN1 have_VH0 always_RR been_VBN crucial_JJ in_II conservative_JJ social_JJ reformist_JJ strategies_NN2 ._. 
Joseph_NP1 had_VHD mused_VVN :_: '_GE perhaps_RR there_EX is_VBZ at_II work_NN1 here_RL a_AT1 process_NN1 ,_, apparent_JJ in_II many_DA2 situations_NN2 but_CCB imperfectly_RR understood_VVN ,_, by_II which_DDQ problems_NN2 reproduced_VVD themselves_PPX2 from_II generation_NN1 to_II generation_NN1 '_GE (_( Joseph_NP1 ,_, 1972_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT focus_NN1 on_II the_AT pattern_NN1 of_IO births_NN2 among_II the_AT very_RG poor_JJ ,_, a_AT1 feature_NN1 of_IO the_AT American_JJ concept_NN1 of_IO the_AT underclass_NN1 ,_, one_PN1 which_DDQ prioritizes_58 '_GE single-parent_JJ female_JJ headed_JJ households_NN2 '_GE as_RG major_JJ issues_NN2 (_( blaming_VVG the_AT mothers_NN2 )_) ,_, appeared_VVD explicitly_RR in_II Joseph_NP1 's_GE 1974_MC Birmingham_NP1 speech_NN1 when_CS he_PPHS1 maintained_VVD that_CST ,_, because_CS an_AT1 excess_NN1 of_IO births_NN2 was_VBDZ apparently_RR occurring_VVG in_II mothers_NN2 of_IO social_JJ class_NN1 V_ZZ1 ,_, '_GE the_AT balance_NN1 of_IO our_APPGE population_NN1 ,_, our_APPGE human_JJ stock_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ threatened_JJ '_GE ._. 
Birth_NN1 control_NN1 might_VM help_VVI to_TO prevent_VVI the_AT excess_JJ production_NN1 of_IO '_GE problem_NN1 children_NN2 ,_, the_AT future_JJ unmarried_JJ mothers_NN2 ,_, delinquents_NN2 ,_, denizens_NN2 of_IO our_APPGE Borstals_NP1 ,_, subnormal_JJ educational_JJ establishments_NN2 ,_, prisons_NN2 ,_, hostels_NN2 for_IF drifters_NN2 '_GE ._. 
Extensive_JJ research_NN1 failed_VVD to_TO support_VVI the_AT cycle_NN1 of_IO deprivation_NN1 thesis_NN1 but_CCB the_AT stereotype_NN1 lived_VVD on_RP ,_, and_CC grew_VVD to_II more_DAR prominence_NN1 with_IW the_AT dominance_NN1 of_IO the_AT right_JJ wing_NN1 in_II the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 and_CC thence_RR in_II British_JJ society_NN1 and_CC politics_NN1 :_: Keith_NP1 Joseph_NP1 was_VBDZ of_RR21 course_RR22 an_AT1 early_JJ leading_JJ figure_NN1 in_II this_DD1 faction_NN1 within_II the_AT party_NN1 ._. 
The_AT apparent_JJ existence_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 economically_RR unproductive_JJ residuum_NN1 of_IO social_JJ outcasts_NN2 has_VHZ been_VBN traced_VVN as_II a_AT1 feature_NN1 of_IO social_JJ investigation_NN1 and_CC social_JJ policy_NN1 by_II ,_, among_II others_NN2 ,_, Stedman_NP1 Jones_NP1 (_( 1971_MC )_) and_CC John_NP1 Macnicol_NP1 (_( 1988_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT words_NN2 used_VVD the_AT labels_NN2 have_VH0 varied_VVN over_II time_NNT1 :_: residuum_NN1 ;_; social_JJ problem_NN1 group_NN1 ;_; hard-core_NN1 ;_; problem_NN1 families_NN2 ;_; the_AT culture_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 ;_; alienation_NN1 ;_; hereditary_JJ poverty_NN1 ;_; the_AT inadequate_JJ poor_JJ ;_; the_AT urban_JJ underclass_NN1 ._. 
The_AT search_NN1 for_IF personal_JJ inadequacy_NN1 and_CC behavioural_JJ defects_NN2 has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT key_JJ focus_NN1 of_IO such_DA research_NN1 and_CC policy_NN1 ._. 
Macnicol_NP1 argues_VVZ that_DD1 '_VBZ in_II its_APPGE periodic_JJ reconstruction_NN1 ,_, the_AT underclass_NN1 concept_NN1 has_VHZ tended_VVN to_TO consist_VVI of_IO five_MC elements_NN2 '_GE :_: 1._MC an_AT1 artificial_JJ '_GE administrative_JJ definition_NN1 relating_VVG to_II contacts_NN2 with_IW particular_JJ institutions_NN2 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 and_CC welfare_NN1 agencies_NN2 ,_, social_JJ workers_NN2 ,_, the_AT police_NN2 etc._RA '_GE ;_; 2._MC the_AT separate_JJ question_NN1 of_IO inter-generational_JJ transmission_NN1 ,_, through_II either_RR heredity_NN1 or_CC socialization_NN1 ;_; 3._MC identification_NN1 of_IO particular_JJ behavioural_JJ traits_NN2 as_CSA antisocial_JJ ,_, ignoring_VVG others_NN2 ;_; 4._MC stress_NN1 on_II resource_NN1 allocation_NN1 issues_NN2 ,_, emphasizing_VVG high_JJ demand_NN1 for_IF services_NN2 by_II defined_JJ categories_NN2 of_IO users_NN2 ;_; and_CC 5._MC '_GE it_PPH1 tends_VVZ to_TO be_VBI supported_VVN by_II those_DD2 who_PNQS wish_VV0 to_TO constrain_VVI the_AT redistributive_JJ potential_NN1 of_IO state_NN1 welfare_NN1 and_CC thus_RR it_PPH1 has_VHZ always_RR been_VBN part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 broader_JJR conservative_JJ view_NN1 of_IO the_AT aetiology_NN1 of_IO social_JJ problems_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE correct_JJ solutions_NN2 '_GE (_( Macnicol_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC ,_, p._NN1 316_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT centrality_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE family_NN1 '_GE in_II these_DD2 conservative_JJ perceptions_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT double-edged_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO the_AT disciplines_NN2 advocated_VVD to_TO deal_VVI with_IW the_AT problem_NN1 ,_, were_VBDR illustrated_VVN in_II an_AT1 editorial_NN1 in_II the_AT Wall_NP1 Street_NNL1 Journal_NN1 (_( Europe_NP1 )_) of_IO 17_MC January_NPM1 1989_MC ._. 
Entitled_VVN Today_RT 's_GE America_NP1 ,_, this_DD1 explained_VVD the_AT split_NN1 between_II the_AT successful_JJ ,_, socially_RR mobile_JJ blacks_NN2 and_CC the_AT rest_NN1 thus_RR :_: the_AT key_NN1 to_II the_AT difference_NN1 ..._... lies_VVZ in_II the_AT family_NN1 a_AT1 truth_NN1 Daniel_NP1 Patrick_NP1 Moynihan_NP1 was_VBDZ pilloried_VVN for_IF stating_VVG a_AT1 few_DA2 years_NNT2 before_II Martin_NP1 Luther_NP1 King_NP1 's_GE assassination_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT past_JJ week_NNT1 ,_, it_PPH1 happens_VVZ ,_, we_PPIS2 have_VH0 heard_VVN intelligent_JJ and_CC well-meaning_JJ whites_NN2 talking_VVG in_II apocalyptic_JJ terms_NN2 about_II the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO the_AT black_JJ underclass_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 can_VM only_RR be_VBI solved_VVN by_II draconian_JJ measures_NN2 of_IO enshrining_VVG abortion_NN1 or_CC taking_VVG children_NN2 away_II21 from_II22 mothers_NN2 ._. 
Rather_II21 than_II22 this_DD1 ,_, argued_VVD the_AT Wall_NP1 Street_NNL1 Journal_NN1 :_: the_AT solution_NN1 to_II the_AT underclass_NN1 lies_VVZ in_II stricter_JJR enforcement_NN1 of_IO the_AT criminal_JJ laws_NN2 ,_, in_II giving_VVG tenants_NN2 a_AT1 stake_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 say_NN1 in_II public_JJ housing_NN1 ,_, in_II educational_JJ innovation_NN1 opposed_VVN by_II teachers_NN2 '_GE unions_NN2 ,_, in_II changing_JJ welfare_NN1 laws_NN2 so_CS21 that_CS22 a_AT1 baby_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 ticket_NN1 for_IF an_AT1 apartment_NN1 separate_VV0 from_II mom_NN1 's_GE ._. 
Much_DA1 of_IO the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO the_AT underclass_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 continue_VV0 to_TO believe_VVI ,_, arises_VVZ from_II perverse_JJ incentives_NN2 rooted_VVN in_II misguided_JJ paternalism_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 explanation_NN1 of_IO urban_JJ poverty_NN1 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 '_GE perverse_JJ incentives_NN2 '_GE is_VBZ being_VBG picked_VVN up_RP by_II the_AT right_JJ wing_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 and_CC used_VVN as_II the_AT basis_NN1 for_IF proposals_NN2 for_IF new_JJ policies_NN2 and_CC regulations_NN2 regarding_II unemployment_NN1 benefit_NN1 ,_, income_NN1 support_NN1 ,_, and_CC housing_VVG entitlement_NN1 as_CSA they_PPHS2 apply_VV0 to_II lone_JJ mothers_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT same_DA week_NNT1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT Wall_NP1 Street_NNL1 Journal_NN1 editorial_NN1 appeared_VVD ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ announced_VVN in_II Britain_NP1 that_CST an_AT1 extensive_JJ study_NN1 of_IO lone_JJ parents_NN2 '_GE reliance_NN1 on_II social_JJ security_NN1 would_VM be_VBI carried_VVN out_RP after_II comments_NN2 from_II Ministers_NN2 that_CST the_AT state_NN1 is_VBZ having_VHG to_TO foot_VVI the_AT bill_NN1 for_IF the_AT so-called_JJ dependency_NN1 culture_NN1 (_( Guardian_NN1 ,_, 18_MC January_NPM1 1989_MC ,_, p._NN1 3_MC )_) ._. 
Mr_NNB John_NP1 Moore_NP1 ,_, then_RT Social_JJ Security_NN1 Secretary_NN1 ,_, had_VHD spoken_VVN of_IO a_AT1 young_JJ woman_NN1 in_II his_APPGE constituency_NN1 who_PNQS obtained_VVD special_JJ benefit_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 council_NN1 flat_NN1 by_II becoming_VVG pregnant_JJ ._. 
He_PPHS1 had_VHD said_VVN that_CST the_AT Government_NN1 needed_VVD to_TO be_VBI '_GE wary_JJ of_IO providing_VVG incentives_NN2 to_TO obtain_VVI a_AT1 particular_JJ benefit_NN1 which_DDQ can_VM erode_VVI a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO personal_JJ responsibility_NN1 and_CC adversely_RR affect_VV0 behaviour_NN1 '_GE ._. 
Similarly_RR ,_, discussions_NN2 are_VBR developing_VVG on_II how_RRQ to_TO limit_VVI the_AT housing_NN1 provided_VVN for_IF single_JJ mothers_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE children_NN2 to_II very_RG low_JJ standard_JJ institutional_JJ care_NN1 ,_, '_" to_TO discourage_VVI the_AT others_NN2 ,_, ._. 
BLAMING_VVG AND_CC EXPELLING_VVG THE_AT VICTIM_NN1 While_CS disputing_VVG the_AT definition_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 underclass_NN1 composed_VVN of_IO recalcitrant_JJ or_CC wayward_JJ pathological_JJ individuals_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 should_VM be_VBI noted_VVN that_CST current_JJ developments_NN2 in_II public_JJ policy_NN1 ,_, especially_RR the_AT poll_NN1 tax_NN1 registration_NN1 and_CC payment_NN1 procedures_NN2 ,_, are_VBR encouraging_VVG the_AT formation_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 '_GE underclass_NN1 '_GE in_II the_AT sense_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 section_NN1 of_IO society_NN1 which_DDQ does_VDZ not_XX participate_VVI even_RR formally_RR in_II society_NN1 ,_, let_VVD alone_RR participate_VVI fully_RR as_CSA citizens_NN2 ._. 
Townsend_NP1 's_GE most_RGT important_JJ definition_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 which_DDQ emphasizes_VVZ that_DD1 lack_NN1 of_IO money_NN1 leads_VVZ to_II in_II inability_NN1 to_TO join_VVI in_RP fully_RR in_II social_JJ life_NN1 ,_, producing_VVG in_II exclusion_NN1 of_IO individuals_NN2 and_CC social_JJ groups_NN2 from_II ordinary_JJ life_NN1 ,_, focuses_VVZ crucially_RR on_II the_AT role_NN1 of_IO lack_NN1 of_IO participation_NN1 and_CC powerlessness_NN1 in_II the_AT social_JJ construction_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE poor_JJ '_GE ._. 
Some_DD features_NN2 of_IO public_JJ policy_NN1 may_VM add_VVI to_II this_DD1 informal_JJ exclusion_NN1 and_CC outcast_NN1 status_NN1 by_II encouraging_JJ people_NN to_TO opt_VVI out_RP completely_RR even_RR from_II formal_JJ status_NN1 as_II a_AT1 citizen_NN1 ,_, thus_RR losing_VVG all_DB civic_JJ rights_NN2 ._. 
The_AT poll_NN1 tax_NN1 is_VBZ crucial_JJ here_RL (_( MacGregor_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT pressures_NN2 to_TO evade_VVI the_AT tax_NN1 a_AT1 new_JJ imposition_NN1 bearing_VVG particularly_RR hard_RR on_II poor_JJ people_NN in_II deprived_JJ ,_, high_JJ spending_NN1 areas_NN2 will_VM encourage_VVI some_DD people_NN to_TO disappear_VVI from_II all_DB public_JJ record_NN1 and_CC perhaps_RR to_TO keep_VVI on_II the_AT move_NN1 to_TO avoid_VVI detection_NN1 ._. 
Recent_JJ changes_NN2 in_II social_JJ security_NN1 regulations_NN2 add_VV0 to_II this_DD1 ._. 
Shelter_NN1 estimated_VVD that_CST 25,000_MC to_II 40,000_MC young_JJ people_NN slept_VVD out_RP in_II the_AT open_JJ in_II Central_JJ London_NP1 in_II 1987_MC ._. 
Others_NN2 say_VV0 the_AT numbers_NN2 increased_VVN in_II 1988_MC ._. 
The_AT census_NN1 of_IO 1991_MC may_VM be_VBI affected_VVN by_II these_DD2 processes_NN2 and_CC since_CS the_AT census_NN1 returns_NN2 will_VM form_VVI the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO some_DD resource-allocation_NN1 calculations_NN2 ,_, severe_JJ underestimation_NN1 of_IO the_AT needs_NN2 of_IO some_DD areas_NN2 may_VM be_VBI the_AT result_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 cities_NN2 already_RR have_VH0 to_TO argue_VVI for_IF a_AT1 notional_JJ amount_NN1 to_TO compensate_VVI for_IF such_DA under-recording_NN1 :_: the_AT same_DA will_VM probably_RR have_VHI to_TO happen_VVI in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
THE_AT DEBATE_NN1 IN_II THE_AT UNITED_NP1 STATES_NP1 :_: SOCIAL_JJ DEMOCRACY_NN1 'S_GE ALTERNATIVE_NN1 In_II his_APPGE book_NN1 The_AT Truly_RR Disadvantaged_JJ ,_, William_NP1 Julius_NP1 Wilson_NP1 avoided_VVD the_AT simplistic_JJ banalities_NN2 of_IO writers_NN2 like_II Murray_NP1 and_CC Lemann_NP1 (_( Wilson_NP1 ,_, 1987_MC )_) ._. 
He_PPHS1 confronted_VVD the_AT evidence_NN1 on_II inner_JJ cities_NN2 and_CC ,_, being_VBG a_AT1 black_JJ social_JJ democratic_JJ scholar_NN1 ,_, dared_VVD to_TO observe_VVI the_AT clustering_NN1 in_II '_GE ghetto_NN1 '_GE neighbourhoods_NN2 of_IO '_GE socially_RR isolated_JJ '_GE blacks_NN2 and_CC Hispanics_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ due_JJ ,_, he_PPHS1 argued_VVD ,_, to_II decreasing_JJ employment_NN1 opportunities_NN2 with_IW the_AT shift_NN1 from_II goods-producing_NN1 to_II service-producing_NN1 activities_NN2 and_CC the_AT loss_NN1 of_IO 7_MC million_NNO unskilled_JJ jobs_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT undesirable_JJ concentration_NN1 effects_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 ._. 
But_CCB this_DD1 situation_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX ,_, he_PPHS1 claimed_VVD ,_, the_AT result_NN1 of_IO personal_JJ inadequacy_NN1 ;_; it_PPH1 resulted_VVD from_II wider_JJR impersonal_JJ economic_JJ and_CC demographic_JJ forces_NN2 ._. 
The_AT loss_NN1 of_IO employment_NN1 opportunities_NN2 led_VVN to_II a_AT1 loss_NN1 of_IO '_GE marriageable_JJ men_NN2 '_GE in_II inner-city_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 key_JJ factor_NN1 in_II the_AT process_NN1 ,_, Wilson_NP1 argued_VVD ,_, was_VBDZ the_AT collapse_NN1 of_IO institutions_NN2 in_II these_DD2 neighbourhoods_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 direct_JJ result_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 and_CC social_JJ isolation_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ produces_VVZ a_AT1 continuing_JJ social_JJ disorganization_NN1 ._. 
Wilson_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN lauded_VVN by_II the_AT centre-left_NN1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 and_CC is_VBZ an_AT1 important_JJ reminder_NN1 that_CST not_XX all_DB Americans_NN2 are_VBR Reaganites_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB this_DD1 brave_JJ attempt_NN1 to_TO '_" face_VVI facts_NN2 '_GE contains_VVZ problems_NN2 ._. 
The_AT concept_NN1 of_IO social_JJ disorganization_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, which_DDQ has_VHZ a_AT1 long_JJ history_NN1 in_II sociology_NN1 ,_, assumes_VVZ its_APPGE contrast_NN1 to_TO be_VBI with_IW a_AT1 '_GE community_NN1 '_GE ,_, a_AT1 harmoniously_RR well-organized_JJ and_CC integrated_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ we_PPIS2 see_VV0 ,_, however_RR ,_, are_VBR different_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO organization_NN1 ,_, alternative_JJ institutional_JJ arrangements_NN2 ._. 
We_PPIS2 may_VM prefer_VVI arrangements_NN2 based_VVN on_II institutions_NN2 like_II the_AT church_NN1 and_CC the_AT shop_NN1 but_CCB gangs_NN2 and_CC parties_NN2 are_VBR also_RR forms_NN2 of_IO social_JJ institution_NN1 ,_, not_XX perhaps_RR quite_RG so_RG easy_JJ to_TO break_VVI down_RP and_CC displace_VVI as_58 '_GE disorganization_NN1 ,_, would_VM imply_VVI ._. 
We_PPIS2 may_VM agree_VVI with_IW much_DA1 of_IO Wilson_NP1 's_GE emphasis_NN1 on_II the_AT need_NN1 for_IF public_JJ policy_NN1 that_CST promotes_VVZ universal_JJ programmes_NN2 and_CC increases_VVZ employment_NN1 and_CC training_NN1 opportunities_NN2 open_VV0 on_II the_AT same_DA basis_NN1 to_II all_DB people_NN ._. 
However_RR ,_, his_APPGE analysis_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN criticized_VVN as_58 '_GE abominably_RR sexist_JJ not_XX to_TO mention_VVI atavistic_JJ '_GE (_( Reed_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT tangle_NN1 of_IO behaviours_NN2 Wilson_NP1 discusses_VVZ consists_VVZ of_IO crime_NN1 rates_NN2 ,_, teenage_JJ pregnancy_NN1 ,_, female_JJ heads_NN2 of_IO families_NN2 ,_, welfare_NN1 dependency_NN1 ,_, and_CC out_II21 of_II22 wedlock_NN1 births_NN2 ._. 
Clearly_RR four_MC of_IO these_DD2 are_VBR overlapping_JJ categories_NN2 and_CC focus_VV0 on_II women_NN2 specifically_RR ._. 
To_TO condemn_VVI this_DD1 analysis_NN1 as_CSA sexist_JJ is_VBZ not_XX however_RR exact_JJ ._. 
Young_JJ men_NN2 and_CC underclass_NN1 men_NN2 in_RR21 general_RR22 are_VBR also_RR portrayed_VVN in_II disparaging_JJ terms_NN2 in_II the_AT book_NN1 ,_, even_CS21 though_CS22 the_AT explanation_NN1 for_IF their_APPGE behaviour_NN1 (_( criminality_NN1 ,_, violence_NN1 ,_, drugs_NN2 ,_, hanging_VVG round_JJ pool_NN1 halls_NN2 ,_, lick_NN1 of_IO responsibility_NN1 for_IF offspring_NN )_) is_VBZ placed_VVN at_II the_AT door_NN1 of_IO external_JJ forces_NN2 ._. 
Rather_RR ,_, the_AT analysis_NN1 is_VBZ pro-nuclear_JJ family_NN1 and_CC implicitly_RR pro-patriarchy_JJ and_CC favours_VVZ a_AT1 clear_JJ set_NN1 of_IO moral_JJ rules_NN2 and_CC values_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ perhaps_RR are_VBR ones_NN2 of_IO which_DDQ many_DA2 respectable_JJ working-class_JJ people_NN ,_, both_RR black_JJ and_CC white_JJ ,_, Afro-American_JJ ,_, European-American_JJ ,_, and_CC others_NN2 ,_, might_VM approve_VVI ._. 
But_CCB by_II focusing_VVG on_II a_AT1 particular_JJ selection_NN1 of_IO empirical_JJ evidence_NN1 ,_, the_AT book_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO shift_VVI the_AT blame_NN1 from_II the_AT poor_JJ and_CC the_AT underclass_NN1 to_II women_NN2 and_CC to_II their_APPGE lack_NN1 of_IO available_JJ ,_, acceptable_JJ marriage_NN1 partners_NN2 ._. 
The_AT implicit_JJ solution_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 resurgence_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE normal_JJ '_GE nuclear_JJ family_NN1 ._. 
Whatever_DDQV the_AT support_NN1 or_CC not_XX for_IF these_DD2 values_NN2 ,_, the_AT book_NN1 fails_VVZ to_TO recognize_VVI the_AT wider_JJR changes_NN2 that_CST have_VH0 gone_VVN on_RP in_II the_AT family_NN1 and_CC in_II gender_NN1 relations_NN2 ,_, changes_NN2 which_DDQ may_VM be_VBI quite_RG separate_JJ in_II origin_NN1 from_II the_AT question_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 ,_, although_CS they_PPHS2 add_VV0 to_II the_AT poverty_NN1 of_IO women_NN2 and_CC children_NN2 ._. 
Remedies_NN2 for_IF the_AT poverty_NN1 of_IO single_JJ mothers_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE families_NN2 in_II an_AT1 economy_NN1 where_CS the_AT two-income_JJ family_NN1 sets_VVZ the_AT norm_NN1 in_II both_DB2 the_AT production_NN1 and_CC consumption_NN1 systems_NN2 would_VM need_VVI to_TO be_VBI more_RGR far_RR reaching_VVG than_CSN those_DD2 proposed_VVN by_II Wilson_NP1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ quite_RG clear_JJ that_CST the_AT lone_JJ parent_NN1 is_VBZ greatly_RR disadvantaged_JJ in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 available_JJ resources_NN2 ,_, money_NN1 especially_RR ,_, but_CCB also_RR time_NNT1 and_CC energy_NN1 ,_, compared_VVN to_II the_AT two-parent_JJ or_CC three-generation_JJ family_NN1 ,_, and_CC she_PPHS1 and_CC her_APPGE children_NN2 suffer_VV0 because_II21 of_II22 this_DD1 ._. 
But_CCB other_JJ factors_NN2 cross-cut_VV0 and_CC a_AT1 given_JJ lone-parent_JJ family_NN1 may_VM still_RR be_VBI better_JJR off_JJ than_CSN if_CS they_PPHS2 were_VBDR in_II a_AT1 two-parent_JJ household_NN1 characterized_VVN by_II vindictiveness_NN1 ,_, meanness_NN1 ,_, or_CC violence_NN1 (_( Pahl_NP1 ,_, 1985_MC )_) ._. 
Importantly_RR ,_, the_AT politics_NN1 behind_II the_AT '_GE impersonal_JJ ,_, economic_JJ and_CC demographic_JJ forces_NN2 at_II work_NN1 in_II British_JJ and_CC American_JJ cities_NN2 need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI brought_VVN out_RP ._. 
The_AT transformation_NN1 of_IO postwar_JJ industrial_JJ cities_NN2 was_VBDZ driven_VVN not_XX by_II some_DD abstract_JJ historical_JJ force_NN1 but_CCB by_II a_AT1 combination_NN1 of_IO private_JJ investment_NN1 decision_NN1 and_CC state_VV0 action_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 impetus_NN1 was_VBDZ centred_VVN around_II an_AT1 urban_JJ renewal_NN1 policy_NN1 that_CST along_II21 with_II22 explicitly_RR segregationist_NN1 policies_NN2 in_II federal_JJ public_JJ housing_NN1 cut_VVN off_II minority_NN1 communities_NN2 ,_, displaced_VVD large_JJ sections_NN2 of_IO these_DD2 communities_NN2 and_CC concentrated_VVD them_PPHO2 between_II expressways_NN2 ,_, office_NN1 complexes_NN2 ,_, stadiums_NN2 and_CC civic_JJ centers_NN2 ._. 
There_EX lies_VVZ the_AT source_NN1 of_IO Wilson_NP1 's_GE '_GE social_JJ isolation_NN1 '_GE ._. 
(_( Reed_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC ,_, p._NN1 169_MC )_) Wilson_NP1 in_II the_AT end_NN1 fails_VVZ to_TO escape_VVI from_II '_GE the_AT nexus_NN1 of_IO moralistic_JJ ideology_NN1 and_CC patriarchal_JJ vision_NN1 dressed_VVN up_RP as_RG social_JJ science_NN1 ,_, (_( ibid._RR )_) ,_, much_DA1 as_CSA the_AT writers_NN2 reviewed_VVN by_II Macnicol_NP1 failed_VVD to_TO do_VDI ._. 
However_RR ,_, his_APPGE conception_NN1 of_IO the_AT '_GE underclass_NN1 '_GE ,_, its_APPGE causation_NN1 and_CC policy_NN1 remedies_NN2 ,_, differs_VVZ markedly_RR from_II those_DD2 of_IO the_AT far_JJ Right_NN1 whose_DDQGE views_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN so_RG easily_RR absorbed_VVN into_II British_JJ government_NN1 and_CC establishment_NN1 thinking_NN1 ._. 
CONCLUSION_NN1 the_AT single_JJ point_NN1 that_CST emerges_VVZ from_II a_AT1 close_JJ reading_NN1 of_IO the_AT literature_NN1 on_II the_AT underclass_NN1 and_CC the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST there_EX is_VBZ no_AT valid_JJ need_NN1 to_TO identify_VVI the_AT poor_JJ by_II their_APPGE putative_JJ behaviour_NN1 at_RR21 all_RR22 ._. 
Many_DA2 of_IO the_AT indicators_NN2 chosen_VVN are_VBR suspect_JJ ,_, as_CSA Macnicol_NP1 has_VHZ shown_VVN for_IF earlier_JJR periods_NN2 ,_, in_CS21 that_CS22 they_PPHS2 simply_RR count_VV0 contact_NN1 with_IW state_NN1 agencies_NN2 ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 commonplace_JJ observation_NN1 that_CST the_AT poor_JJ are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI in_II31 contact_II32 with_II33 social_JJ workers_NN2 because_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR poor_JJ (_( Becker_NP1 ,_, 1988_MC )_) ;_; young_JJ drug-takers_NN2 in_II inner_JJ cities_NN2 are_VBR more_RGR visible_JJ than_CSN wealthy_JJ socialites_NN2 but_CCB drug-taking_NN1 and_CC drinking_NN1 stretch_VV0 across_II social_JJ groups_NN2 (_( O'Bryan_NP1 ,_, 1989_MC ;_; Plant_VV0 ,_, 1989_MC )_) ;_; desertion_NN1 of_IO women_NN2 by_II husbands_NN2 and_CC the_AT choice_NN1 to_TO remain_VVI unmarried_JJ are_VBR not_XX restricted_VVN to_II the_AT poor_JJ ;_; and_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 and_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 ._. 
All_DB these_DD2 '_GE signs_NN2 '_GE of_IO '_GE inadequacy_NN1 '_GE are_VBR nothing_PN1 of_IO the_AT kind_NN1 but_CCB are_VBR indicators_NN2 of_IO poverty_NN1 and_CC powerlessness_NN1 ._. 
Only_JJ measures_NN2 of_IO material_JJ social_JJ conditions_NN2 ,_, unemployment_NN1 ,_, income_NN1 ,_, housing_VVG conditions_NN2 ,_, density_NN1 of_IO population_NN1 ,_, can_VM usefully_RR serve_VVI to_TO characterize_VVI the_AT deprivation_NN1 encountered_VVN by_II those_DD2 forced_VVN to_TO live_VVI in_II these_DD2 circumstances_NN2 ._. 
The_AT '_GE underclass_NN1 '_GE is_VBZ what_DDQ the_AT working_JJ poor_JJ become_VV0 when_RRQ they_PPHS2 are_VBR not_XX employed_VVN ._. 
Once_RR jobs_NN2 arise_VV0 and_CC if_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR paid_VVN for_IF their_APPGE labour_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 become_VV0 the_AT workers_NN2 again_RT ;_; sometimes_RT they_PPHS2 are_VBR just_RR as_RG poor_JJ but_CCB their_APPGE class_NN1 position_NN1 has_VHZ changed_VVN ._. 
However_RR ,_, long-term_JJ unemployment_NN1 and_CC disconnection_NN1 from_II the_AT social_JJ relations_NN2 of_IO work_NN1 and_CC employment_NN1 are_VBR bound_VVNK to_TO produce_VVI different_JJ patterns_NN2 of_IO social_JJ life_NN1 ,_, norms_NN2 ,_, and_CC values_NN2 and_CC possibly_RR despair_VV0 and_CC hopelessness_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 may_VM lead_VVI to_II a_AT1 gap_NN1 between_II the_AT values_NN2 of_IO those_DD2 most_RGT closely_RR tied_VVN to_II the_AT institutions_NN2 of_IO the_AT labour_NN1 movement_NN1 and_CC the_AT unwaged_JJ ._. 
But_CCB this_DD1 problem_NN1 too_RR is_VBZ not_XX confined_VVN to_II the_AT gap_NN1 between_II the_AT '_GE workers_NN2 '_GE and_CC the_AT unemployed_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 affects_VVZ the_AT gap_NN1 between_II unionized_JJ and_CC non-unionized_JJ sectors_NN2 ,_, between_II men-dominated_NN1 and_CC women-dominated_JJ work-situations_NN2 and_CC areas_NN2 of_IO social_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 varieties_NN2 are_VBR complex_JJ and_CC changeable_JJ :_: at_II times_NNT2 of_IO rapid_JJ social_JJ restructuring_VVG such_DA changes_NN2 are_VBR also_RR more_RGR rapid_JJ ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ clear_JJ is_VBZ that_DD1 public_JJ policies_NN2 that_CST come_VV0 from_II outside_RL and_CC are_VBR imposed_VVN on_II inner-city_JJ populations_NN2 are_VBR often_RR based_VVN on_II prejudice_NN1 and_CC ignorance_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ needed_VVN is_VBZ a_AT1 change_NN1 in_II the_AT processes_NN2 of_IO decision-making_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 policies_NN2 are_VBR informed_VVN from_II below_RL by_II the_AT people_NN involved_VVD ,_, who_PNQS are_VBR the_AT only_JJ ones_NN2 who_PNQS really_RR know_VV0 what_DDQ life_NN1 there_EX is_VBZ like_JJ and_CC what_DDQ people_NN really_RR want_VV0 and_CC are_VBR able_JK to_TO do_VDI ._. 
In_II the_AT dominant_JJ conceptions_NN2 of_IO inner-city_JJ public_JJ policy_NN1 ,_, breaking_VVG the_AT cycle_NN1 focuses_VVZ on_II the_AT issues_NN2 of_IO '_GE welfare_NN1 dependency_NN1 '_GE and_CC '_GE youth_NN1 unemployment_NN1 '_GE :_: it_PPH1 does_VDZ not_XX include_VVI far-reaching_JJ and_CC fundamental_JJ reorganization_NN1 of_IO social_JJ and_CC economic_JJ life_NN1 and_CC the_AT redistribution_NN1 of_IO income_NN1 ,_, wealth_NN1 ,_, and_CC life-chances_NN2 ._. 
Hugh_NP1 Stretton_NP1 (_( 1978_MC )_) has_VHZ provided_VVN four_MC metaphors_NN2 to_TO characterize_VVI the_AT city_NN1 :_: the_AT city_NN1 as_CSA machine_NN1 ;_; as_CSA community_NN1 ;_; as_II a_AT1 market_NN1 place_NN1 ;_; and_CC as_II a_AT1 battle-ground_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 I_PPIS1 have_VH0 concentrated_VVN on_II the_AT image_NN1 of_IO the_AT inner_JJ city_NN1 as_II a_AT1 battle-ground_NN1 a_AT1 battleground_NN1 on_II which_DDQ opposing_JJ forces_NN2 ,_, ideas_NN2 ,_, and_CC values_NN2 can_VM be_VBI identified_VVN ._. 
The_AT argument_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN that_CST the_AT geography_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 and_CC the_AT geography_NN1 of_IO voting_NN1 are_VBR interconnected_VVN and_CC thus_RR party_NN1 politics_NN1 and_CC public_JJ policies_NN2 are_VBR interconnected_VVN too_RR ._. 
Attitudes_NN2 to_II social_JJ problems_NN2 and_CC public_JJ policy_NN1 and_CC electoral_JJ strategies_NN2 are_VBR closely_RR intertwined_VVN ,_, most_RGT effectively_RR by_II the_AT Thatcherites_NN2 in_II their_APPGE overall_JJ strategy_NN1 of_IO social_JJ engineering_NN1 ._. 
Their_APPGE opponents_NN2 have_VH0 not_XX been_VBN able_JK to_TO make_VVI the_AT connections_NN2 as_CSA effectively_RR ,_, either_RR through_II working_VVG out_RP a_AT1 coherent_JJ ideology_NN1 or_CC through_II practice_NN1 and_CC organization_NN1 ._. 
Only_RR municipal_JJ socialism_NN1 offered_VVD any_DD coherent_JJ alternative_NN1 ,_, but_CCB this_DD1 was_VBDZ limited_VVN by_II its_APPGE restriction_NN1 to_II the_AT local_JJ level_NN1 ;_; the_AT balance_NN1 of_IO power_NN1 went_VVD against_II it_PPH1 and_CC it_PPH1 has_VHZ now_RT been_VBN thrown_VVN back_RP ._. 
Dominant_JJ perceptions_NN2 of_IO poverty_NN1 in_II divided_JJ Britain_NP1 as_CSA characterized_VVN by_II urban_JJ poverty_NN1 ,_, decay_VV0 ,_, and_CC concentration_NN1 in_II areas_NN2 defined_VVD as_58 '_GE inner_JJ cities_NN2 '_GE and_CC inhabited_VVN by_II an_AT1 '_GE underclass_NN1 '_GE call_NN1 forth_RR increasingly_RR punitive_JJ and_CC extremely_RR tight-fisted_JJ selectivist_NN1 policy_NN1 responses_NN2 ._. 
An_AT1 alternative_JJ view_NN1 sees_VVZ the_AT shape_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 as_CSA reflecting_VVG the_AT shape_NN1 and_CC condition_NN1 of_IO the_AT wider_JJR society_NN1 and_CC requires_VVZ more_RGR wide-ranging_JJ policy_NN1 responses_NN2 ,_, especially_RR those_DD2 founded_VVN on_II universalist_NN1 principles_NN2 ._. 
In_II a_AT1 critical_JJ article_NN1 written_VVN several_DA2 years_NNT2 ago_RA ,_, Townsend_NP1 concluded_VVD by_II reminding_VVG his_APPGE readers_NN2 what_DDQ Tawney_NP1 had_VHD written_VVN in_II 1913_MC ._. 
Plus_II a_AT1 change_NN1 :_: in_II the_AT 1990s_MC2 these_DD2 words_NN2 (_( apart_II21 from_II22 their_APPGE dated_JJ gender_NN1 references_NN2 )_) remain_VV0 as_RG relevant_JJ and_CC as_RG enlightening_JJ as_CSA in_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 and_CC at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO the_AT century_NNT1 :_: the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT condition_NN1 of_IO the_AT normal_JJ man_NN1 &lsqb;_( and_CC woman_NN1 &rsqb;_) in_II normal_JJ circumstances_NN2 ,_, neither_RR better_RRR nor_CC worse_JJR off_JJ than_CSN his_APPGE &lsqb;_( or_CC her_PPHO1 &rsqb;_) neighbours_NN2 ,_, not_XX of_IO those_DD2 whose_DDQGE failings_NN2 qualify_VV0 them_PPHO2 to_TO be_VBI the_AT text_NN1 for_IF the_AT moralist_NN1 ,_, and_CC who_PNQS are_VBR no_AT more_RGR common_JJ in_II the_AT manual_JJ working-classes_NN2 than_CSN in_II other_JJ sections_NN2 of_IO the_AT society_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ in_RR21 short_RR22 the_AT question_NN1 of_IO the_AT economic_JJ status_NN1 and_CC opportunities_NN2 of_IO those_DD2 who_PNQS make_VV0 up_RP seven-eighths_MF of_IO the_AT community_NN1 ,_, not_XX of_IO any_DD submerged_JJ residuum_NN1 ..._... 
The_AT problem_NN1 of_IO poverty_NN1 with_IW which_DDQ the_AT student_NN1 is_VBZ concerned_JJ is_VBZ primarily_RR an_AT1 industrial_JJ one_PN1 ,_, and_CC only_RR secondly_RR in_II its_APPGE manifestations_NN2 ,_, &lsqb;_( found_VVN &rsqb;_) in_II the_AT mill_NN1 ,_, in_II the_AT mine_NN1 or_CC at_II the_AT docks_NN2 ,_, not_XX in_II casual_JJ wards_NN2 or_CC on_II the_AT embankment_NN1 ._. 
(_( Townsend_NP1 ,_, 1976_MC ,_, p._NN1 171_MC )_) '_" 
